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PLEASE NOTE: Publications listed in this catalog are available for viewing, printing, and downloading from this site. Just click on the "View and Print this Publication Now" link under the abstract. Please send e-mail to rdm@srs.fs.usda.gov if you have any problems viewing or printing these publications.
The seven publications that are published by the Southern Research Station are also available in hard copy through the mail. To order Station publications in hard copy, print the Publications Order Form that is at the "Order This Publication" link. You may request more than one title per form, up to two copies of the same title. The number in parentheses at the end of the publication description, is the number to circle on the form; i.e., to order: Baldwin, V. Clark, Jr.; Burkhart, Harold E.; Westfall, James A.; Peterson, Kelly D., "An integrated approach toward reducing losses from fusiform rust in merchantable slash and loblolly pine plantations" you would circle 2.
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Working for the Birds: Basic Research and Long-Term Management Tension exists naturally between scientists and managers, perhaps similar to that between physicians who practice as internists and those who intervene surgically. Research and management of the Savannah River Site demonstrates this tension and the concept of multiple use, extenuated by multiple management jurisdictions. The Department of Energy (DOE) operates the Savannah River Site, located on the South Carolina-Georgia border and along the Savannah River. Since the 78,000 ha tract became a Federal facility in 1951 under the Atomic Energy Commission, the USDA Forest Service has managed the area’s natural resources. Initially open fields comprised about 40 percent of the area; now forests cover 80 percent of the land. Eugene Odum, University of Georgia professor and the father of ecology, began studies at the site in 1951. A significant portion of research in the first decade focused on avian biology and baseline population data. Southern Research Station scientists and university researchers from various universities, including the University of Georgia, Clemson University, the University of Florida, Purdue University, and Virginia Polytechnic Institute, conduct ornithological work under the Savannah River Institute (SRI) Biodiversity Program, established in the late 1980’s. In 1996, energized by John I. Blake, research manager of SRI and John B. Dunning, Jr., professor of Forestry and Natural Resources at Purdue, SRI sponsored a workshop to synthesize 45 years of on-site ornithological research. In addition to introducing participants to the range of avian research at the Savannah River Site, the workshop aimed to explore the interaction of researchers and managers, identifying successful aspects of the multidisciplinary program, as well as lessons for improvement. Participants included scientists from the Southern Research Station, the University of Georgia’s Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, Westinghouse Savannah River Company, and university scientists conducting on-site research. Speakers from the South Carolina Department of Natural Resources, the National Audubon Society and other non-governmental organizations, and regional ornithologists widened the range of opinions. Dunning and John C. Kilgo, Southern Research Station ecologist, edited the workshop’s collection of papers, published as Avian Research at the Savannah River Site: A Model for Integrating Basic Research and Long-term Management. In the introductory paper, Integrating Basic Research and Long-term Management: A Case Study Using Avian Research at the Savannah River Site, the editors support closer relationships for managers and scientists, especially in this time of limited research funding and increased scrutiny of land management. The editors say, "In short, managers need answers to questions, and researchers need support for answering questions. . . . The purposes of the workshop were varied, but an important theme was to examine how research and management interacted at this facility whose primary mission was not natural resource management." Dunning and Kilgo provide insight into why researchers and land mangers sometimes view each other’s work with distrust. They discuss the values of collaboration, especially over the long haul. Research questions sometimes outlive one grant, a graduate student’s academic term, or even a scientist’s career. Likewise, land management has been shifting from short-term fixes to long-term planning and sustainability. Articles in Avian Research at the Savannah River Site authored by Southern Research Station scientistst:
The Cooper Ornithological Society published Avian Research at the Savannah River Site: A Model for Integrating Basic Research and Long-term Management. You can purchase the volume, Studies in Avian Biology No. 21, for $20 by contacting Cooper Ornithological Society, Western Foundation of Vertebrate Zoology, 439 Calle San Pablo, Camarillo, CA 93010. Station News The Southern Research Station and the Rocky Mountain Research Station joined together to honor Dick Tinus for significant contributions to forest tree nursery science over his 35-year career. Pete Roussopoulos, Southern Station Director, presented Dick with a length-of-service award. Although Flagstaff, AZ, is Dick’s home base, he works with the Ecology and Management of Even-Aged Southern Pine Forests research work unit in Pineville, LA. Jim Barnett, project leader, says colleagues and customers respect Dick for his dedication, integrity, and ability to provide practical applications. "Dick could visit a nursery, listen to questions, and before he left that day, he could offer some ideas that people could use. That’s special." More than 50 people attended the reception for Dick, and he received messages and awards from around the world. John Toliver, Acting Director for the Rocky Mountain Research Station, came to honor Dick Tinus, as did friends and associates from Forest Service nurseries, the Flagstaff lab, Northern Arizona University, Karen Burr and Joe Myers from the Couer d’ Alene Nursery, and Tom Landis, national nursery specialist, from the Pacific Northwest Station.We congratulate Dick for his stellar career and thank him for his fine representation of the Forest Service. Kris Connor in Starkville edits the International Tree Seed newsletter, taking the reins from Jack Vozzo. The newsletter includes feature articles, spotlights a research facility, provides a forum for requesting help with weed problems, and offers technology transfer tips. Kris produces the newsletter three times a year in English, Spanish, and French. She distributes it electronically to 250 subscribers in the U.S., Brazil, Malaysia, and Tanzania. You can get a print copy if you prefer. To sign up, e-mail Kris at kfcbcp@yahoo.com. Kris Connor and Jack Vozzo belong to the Center for Bottomland Hardwoods Research unit, headed by project leader Ted Leininger. We congratulate Wendell Haag and Mel Warren, Oxford, MS, who received the 2000 Forest Service National Threatened, Endangered, and Sensitive Species Awards. These Southern Research Station scientists, members of the Center for Bottomland Hardwoods Research Unit, were recognized for the following accomplishments:
Congratulations to Bill Burkman for becoming the head of data collection for Forest Inventory and Analysis at North Central Research Station. Bill worked in the Southern Research Station Forest Health Monitoring Program. In this issue of Compass, you can read one of his latest publications, co-authored with Bill Bechtold: Has Virginia Pine Declined? The Use of Forest Health Monitoring and Other Information in the Determination. We wish Bill Burkman and his family well, and we know they will enjoy the full-size hockey rinks in Minnesota! |
Southern Pines Research
Baldwin, V. Clark, Jr.; Burkhart, Harold E.; Westfall, James A.; Peterson, Kelly D. Linking growth and yield and process models to estimate impact of environmental changes on growth of loblolly pine. Forest Science. 47(1): 77-82.
PTAEDA2 is a distance-dependent, individual tree model that simulates the growth and yield of a plantation of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) on an annual basis. The MAESTRO model utilizes an array of trees in a stand to calculate and integrate the effects of biological and physical variables on the photosynthesis and respiration processes of a target tree on an hourly basis. PTAEDA2 sums the quantities for individual trees to obtain stand results; MAESTRO computes values for one tree at a time. These models were linked to provide a tool for further understanding stand, climatic, and edaphic effects on tree and forest productivity. PTAEDA2 predicts the characteristics of trees grown at a given stand density, on a given site, for a given length of time. These characteristics (outputs) are then used as direct inputs into MAESTRO, which assesses the expected impact of environmental changes on tree function. The results from MAESTRO are fed back into PTAEDA2 to update future predictions by modifying the site index driver variable of the growth and yield model. An equation that predicts changes in site index as a function of net photosynthesis, age, and trees per unit area is the backbone of the dynamic linkage. The model changes required to link PTAEDA2 to MAESTRO were developed and reported earlier. This article reviews the earlier work and reports research results, quantifying the relationships between net photosynthesis and the PTAEDA2 growth predictors, thus providing the basis for the MAESTRO to PTAEDA2 feedback process and integration of these two models. (1)
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Belanger, Roger, P.; Miller, Thomas; Zarnoch, Stanley J.; and others. 2000. An integrated approach toward reducing losses from fusiform rust in merchantable slash and loblolly pine plantations. Res. Pap. SRS-23. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 14 p.
The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the selective thinning of trees with rust galls as a means of reducing losses to the fusiform rust (Cronartium quercuum (Berk.) Miyabe ex Shirai f. sp. fusiforme) disease in merchantable slash (Pinus elliottii Engelm. var. elliottii) and loblolly (P. taeda L.) pine plantations. Additional objectives were to assess the post-thinning occurrence and impacts of southern pine beetles (Dendroctonus frontalis Zimm.) and annosum root rot (Heterobasidion annosum Fr.). Nineteen rust-infected plantations were selected in Alabama, Georgia, and South Carolina to represent a wide range of stand and rust conditions. Thinnings were based primarily on the removal of trees with severe and moderate stem girdling caused by fusiform rust galls. Approximately 750 acres were thinned operationally to salvage potential mortality; 2,250 nonthinned acres served as controls. Study plots were surveyed annually for 10 years to determine the amount and causes of mortality. Stand growth and development were evaluated at the end of 5- and 10-year periods after treatment. Removal of rust-infected stems greatly improved the quality of trees in the residual stands. The periodic diameter growth of individual dominant and codominant slash and loblolly pine trees was affected by the extent of stem girdling. Trees with severe stem girdling (³ 50 percent) grew significantly less than gall-free trees or trees with small or moderate stem girdling. Trends in periodic stand growth and total volume production were similar for slash and loblolly pine. Standing volume at the end of 10 years was greater in nonthinned portions of the plantations than in thinned portions. However, periodic stand growth and ingrowth of rust-free sawtimber (³ 9 inches in diameter at breast height) were greater in thinned portions of the plantation. Rust-associated mortality was the primary factor that reduced volume growth and production in slash pine plantations. Losses from fusiform rust and the southern pine beetle had a severe impact on total production in the loblolly plantations. Thinning significantly reduced losses from both of these forest pests. Management implications can be incorporated into conventional thinning procedures for regulating stand density, increasing growth, and improving stand health. (2)
Conner, Richard N.; Saenz, Daniel; Rudolph, D. Craig; and others. 2001. Does red-cockaded woodpecker excavation of resin wells increase risk of bark beetle infestation of cavity trees? The Auk. 118(1): 219-224.
The red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis) is unique among North American woodpeckers in that it nests and roosts almost exclusively in living pines (Pinus spp.) The red-cockaded woodpecker makes daily excavations at small wounds, termed "resin wells," around the cavity entrance and on the bole of the cavity tree from which resin flows down the tree. The woodpecker also flakes off loose bark, which results in a smoother surface on the pine tree’s bole. These behaviors result in a resin barrier that serves as an effective deterrent against rat snakes, which prey on the red-cockaded woodpecker. A pine tree’s resin provides its primary defense against the southern pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis). The authors discuss whether the red-cockaded woodpecker’s depletion of a pine tree’s resin increases the risk of bark beetle infestation. The article addresses results for longleaf (Pinus palustris), loblolly (P. taeda), and shortleaf (P. echinata) pines. (3)
Haywood, James D.; Grelen, Harold E.; 2000. Twenty years of prescribed burning influence the development of direct-seeded longleaf pine on a wet pine site in Louisiana. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 24(2): 86-92.
Prescribed burning treatments were applied over a 20 yr period in a completely randomized field study to determine the effects of various fire regimes on vegetation in a direct- seeded stand of longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.). Seeding was done in November 1968. The study area was broadcast-burned about 16 months after seeding. The initial research treatments were applied in 1973, and as many as 12 research burns were applied through 1993. Pines were measured in March 1995. Prescribed burning resulted in a greater stocking of longleaf pine (an average of 598 trees/ac) on treated plots than on unburned plots (30 trees/ac). However, on the burned treatments, longleaf pines were significantly smaller (2.5 ft3/tree of stemwood) than were the unburned trees (3.7 ft3/tree of stemwood). Half of the treated plots were burned in early March, and the other half were burned in early May. Seasons of burning did not significantly influence longleaf pine stocking. However, use of fire in May resulted in significantly greater basal area (100 ft2/ac) and stemwood production (1,921 ft3/ac) than burning in March (59 ft2/ac and 909 ft3/ac). Fire effectively kept natural loblolly pine (P. taeda L.) seedlings from reaching sapling size, but loblolly saplings and poles dominated the unburned plots (710 trees/ac). When all pines were considered on all treatments, stocking ranged from 467 to 740 trees/ac, but stocking was not significantly different among treatments. The unburned plots had significantly greater total basal area (149 ft2/ac) and stemwood productivity (2,918 ft3/ac) than the burned treatments (82 ft2/ac and 1,459 ft3/ac). Likewise, hardwoods that were at least 1 in. d.b.h. were more common on unburned plots (327 stems/ac than on burned treatments (58 stems/ac). (4)
Landsberg, Joe J.; Johnsen. Kurt H.; Albaugh, Timothy J.; and others. 2001. Applying 3-PG, a simple process-based model designed to produce practical results, to data from loblolly pine experiments. Forest Science. 47(1): 43-51.
3-PG is a simple process-based model that requires few parameter values and only readily available input data. We tested the structure of the model by calibrating it against loblolly pine data from the control treatment of the SETRES experiment in Scotland County, NC, then altered the fertility rating to simulate the effects of fertilization. There was excellent correspondence between simulated values of stem mass and the values obtained from field measurements, and good correspondence between simulated and measured stem diameters and leaf area index values. Growth efficiency values derived from the model were similar to those obtained from field data. We used the model, without further calibration, to predict tree growth in terms of stem diameter at SETRES 2, a genotype ´ environment interaction trial in the same locality. Simulated mean stem diameters of two provenances did not differ significantly, over 3 yr, from those observed in the control (unfertilized) treatments, but rates of change were lower than those of fertilized provenances. We then used 3-PG to simulate fertilized stand growth for an entire rotation length, and these results corresponded to those obtained with a traditional growth and yield model. This study showed that the model can simulate accurately the behavior and responses to environmental factors of loblolly pine and that it has considerable potential value as a management tool, for scenario analysis, and as a research tool. (5)
Martin, Timothy A.; Johnsen, Kurt H.; White, Timothy L. 2001. Ideotype development in southern pines: rationale and strategies for overcoming scale-related obstacles. Forest Science. 47(1): 21-28.
Indirect genetic selection for early growth and disease resistance of southern pines has proven remarkably successful over the past several decades. However, several benefits could be derived for southern pine breeding programs by incorporating ideotypes, conceptual models which explicitly describe plant phenotypic characteristics that are hypothesized to produce greater yield. The potential benefits of using ideotypes include improvement in trait heritabilities and genetic correlations, higher genetic gain in diverse silvicultural environments, guidance for developing mating designs, and provision of a framework for synthesis of tree production physiology knowledge. There are numerous obstacles to the development of ideotypes for southern pines, most of them related to the difficulty of linking traits and processes that operate at small spatial and temporal scales (e.g., tree crown morphological traits or leaf net photosynthesis) with outputs that occur at large spatial and temporal scales (e.g., stand-level, rotation-age stem biomass yield). Fortunately, as we enter the 21st century, several relevant advances are converging that bode well for overcoming these obstacles. These advances relate to improvements and developments of process modeling, advances in technologies that permit measures of component processes at relevant scales, the likely future importance of intensive clonal forestry, and the movement toward large-scale genetic block plot experiments. (6)
Miller, Daniel R.; Borden, John H. 2000. Pheromone interruption of pine engraver, Ips pini, by pheromones of mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). Journal of Entomological Society of British Columbia. 97: 57-65.
The effect of pheromones of Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins on the attraction of Ips pini (Say) to its pheromone, ipsdienol, was investigated in stands of lodgepole pine. The mixture of cis- and trans-verbenol significantly reduced catches of I. pini in traps baited with ipsdienol at three locations in British Columbia. exo-Brevicomin had no effect on catches of I. pini, irrespective of the enantiomeric composition of exo-brevicomin. Ipsdienol did not significantly reduce the attraction of D. ponderosae to traps baited with cis- and trans-verbenol, and (! )-exo-brevicomin. (7)
Miller, Daniel R.; Lindgren, B. Staffan. 2000. Comparison of a -pinene and myrcene on attraction of mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) to pheromones in stands of western white pine. Journal of Entomological Society of British Columbia. 97: 41-46.
Multiple-funnel traps baited with exo-brevicomin and a mixture of cis- and trans-verbenol were used to test the relative attractiveness of myrcene and (-)-a -pinene to the mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins, in a stand of western white pine, Pinus monticola Dougl. Traps baited with myrcene caught significantly more D. ponderosae than traps baited with (-)-a -pinene, irrespective of the presence of exo-brevicomin. exo-Brevicomin was attractive to Thanasimus undatulus (Say) (Coleoptera: Cleridae), whereas Trypodendron lineatum (Olivier) (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) was attracted to (-)-a -pinene. Our results support the use of myrcene in commercial trap lures and tree baits for D. ponderosae in stands of western white pine in British Columbia. (8)
Moser, John C.; Jorge E. Macías-Sámano. 2000. Tarsonemid mite associates of Dendroctonus frontalis (Coleoptera: Scolytidae): implications for the historical biogeography of D. frontalis. The Canadian Entomologist. 132: 765-771.
Seven species of mites (Acari: Tarsenomidae) were associated with two local outbreaks of the southern pine beetle, Dendroctonus frontalis Zimmerman, in Chiapas, Mexico; three of these species were new records for Mexico and Central America. The morphology and phoretic behavior of these mites differed little between the western and southern populations from the United States. One major difference was that the hyperphoretic ascospores of the southern pine beetle mycangial fungus, Ceratocystiopsis sp. (Ophiostomataceae), were common in sporothecae of Tarsonemus krantzi Smiley and Moser (Acari: Tarsonemidae) and Tarsonemus ips Lindquist in Chiapas, Mexico, whereas the ascospores of the blue stain fungus, Ophiostoma minus (Hedgcock) H. and P. Sydow (Ophiostomataceae), were rare; this situation in the Southern United States is reversed. The paucity of behavioral and morphological differences between the two southern pine beetle populations and the relevant historical climatology suggest that the appearance of D. frontalis in the Southern United States may be a recent event. (9)
Reeve, John D. 2000. Complex emergence patterns in a bark beetle predator. Agricultural and Forest Entomology. 2: 233-240.
The emergence pattern of Thanasimus dubius (F.) (Coleoptera: Cleridae), a common predator of the southern pine beetle, Dendroctonus frontalis Zimmermann (Coleoptera: Scolytidae), was studied under field conditions across different seasons. A simple statistical model was then developed to characterize the emergence data, using the truncated geometric distribution. Data are also presented on the mortality of T. dubius eggs at various temperatures and humidities in an effort to explain certain aspects of emergence behavior.
Emergence of T. dubius from a given tree usually occurred in several discrete episodes across a 2 yr period, with most individuals emerging in spring or autumn. Almost no emergence occurred in July and August, which may be an adaptation to avoid high temperature mortality. Emergence patterns appeared similar across seasons, with the time of year serving mainly to shift the pattern through time.
Cycles in D. frontalis abundance may be the result of delayed density dependence generated by its natural enemy complex. The predator T. dubius is likely to be an important component of this delayed density dependence, because of its lengthy development time and apparent impact on D. frontalis. (10)
Sampson, David A.; Johnsen, Kurt H.; Ludovici, Kim H.; and others. 2001. Stand-scale correspondence in empirical and simulated labile carbohydrates in loblolly pine. Forest Science. 47(1): 60-68.
As investment into intensive forestry increases, the potential trade-offs between productivity and sustainability should be scrutinized. Because of their important role in internal carbon (C) budgets, labile C pools may provide a measure of the potential ability of trees and stands to respond to stress. We modified the process model BIOMASS to examine daily C budgets of midrotation nonfertilized and fertilized loblolly pine stands. We tested whether the absolute difference between daily simulated net canopy assimilation (GPP minus maintenance respiration) and our empirical estimates of production, or daily gross carbon balance, mimics the labile carbohydrate C pool. We compared this labile pool surrogate to independent, empirical analyses of total nonstructural (starch and soluble sugars) carbohydrates from an individual whole-tree analysis scaled to the stand level.
Of particular interest, the simulated daily gross C balance indicated periods of carbon deficit during the growing season that lasted from 1 to 40 days. Simulated daily net C balance was met from labile C storage during these periods. Fertilized plots had similar time-period trends as the control plots, but exhibited a twofold increase in C assimilation and use. Simulated and empirical estimates of the labile carbohydrate pools displayed similar seasonal trends, although their correspondence depended on the time of year. Simulations indicated a winter/early spring "recharge" period; concentrations peaked at ~ 50 and ~ 60 mg C g biomass- 1 in control and fertilized plots, respectively, in 1995. The overall correlation between predicted and empirical estimates was low to moderate (r = 0.51). The best agreement was with the empirical data from April through June as concentrations declined; however, predicted minimum concentrations (15 and 5 mg C g biomass- 1 in control and fertilized plots, respectively) were lower, and obtained earlier in the year than the empirical data (~ 20 mg C mg biomass- 1 ). These analyses quantify the strong extent that loblolly pine exhibits a buffered capacity to balance the C budget when current photosynthesis occasionally cannot meet daily C requirements. Further development of our approach may lead to a tool for analyzing potential risks associated with intensive forest management. (11)
Sanchez, Felipe G.; Carter, Emily A.; Klepac, John. 2000. Soil carbon and soil physical properties response to incorporating mulched forest slash. New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science. 30(1/2): 150-168.
A study was installed in the Lower Coastal Plain near Washington, NC, to test the hypothesis that incorporating organic matter in the form of comminuted forest slash would increase soil carbon and nutrient pools, and alter soil physical properties to favor pine growth. Two sites were selected, an organic and a mineral site, to compare the treatment effects on the different soil types. The mulching treatments included a surface broadcast mulch, a surface strip mulch, and a strip mulch and till. On the mineral site, the three treatments resulted in general decreases in soil bulk density, gravimetric soil water content, and soil strength. Soil carbon and nitrogen increased for all the treatments on the mineral site, with some significant differences between the treatments. The broadcast mulch and bed treatment resulted in an almost 100 percent increase in soil carbon and nitrogen. On the organic site, the treatments did not have a significant effect on soil physical properties or soil carbon and nitrogen. There was a consistent decrease in soil carbon and nitrogen on this site, but these changes were not significantly different from those in the control treatment. (12)
Sullivan, Brian T.; Pettersson, Eva M.; Seltmann, Katja C.; Berisford, C. Wayne. 2000. Attraction of the bark beetle parasitoid Roptrocerus xylophagorum (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) to host-associated olfactory cues. Physical and Chemical Ecology. 29(6): 1138-1151.
Studies were conducted to identify host location cues used by Roptrocerus xylophagorum (Ratzeburg), a larval/pupal parasitoid of bark beetles. In Y-tube olfactometer bioassays, female R. xylophagorum were attracted to infested bark (i.e., phloem, cambium, and outer corky bark tissues) removed from bolts of loblolly pine, Pinus taeda L., colonized by the late instar larvae and pupae of the bark beetle Ips grandicollis Eichhoff (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). In contrast, bark taken from recently cut, uninfested bolts interrupted attraction to infested bark when these were presented together. Larval and pupal hosts isolated from infested bark were not attractive to parasitoids, whereas frass removed from the larval mines in infested bark was highly attractive. Bark from which hosts or both hosts and host frass were removed remained highly attractive. Bark sandwiches (fresh bark with the exposed surface pressed to glass microscope slides) infested with either third-instar or adult female I. grandicollis were attractive to female parasitoids, whereas bark sandwiches with only mechanical damage to the phloem tissue were unattractive. A steam distillate of bark infested with host larvae was attractive to female R. xylophagorum, whereas a distillate of fresh pine resin was not attractive. Volatiles from the experimental baits were collected on Porapak Q and analyzed by coupled gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Several compounds were identified that distinguished baits with biological activity. These data show the importance of the complete host/plant complex for attraction of R. xylophagorum to its host's habitat and suggest a possible role for particular odors from uninfested host plant tissue in directing foraging parasitoids away from locations with few or no hosts. (13)
Wetlands, Bottomland Hardwoods, and Streams Research
Burke, Marianne K.; Eisenbies, Mark H., eds. 2000. The Coosawhatchie Bottomland ecosystem study: A report on the development of a reference wetland. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-38. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 64 p.
Only 23 percent of the presettlement acreage of bottomland hardwood forests remains today, and the remaining forests have lost many of their original functions. To successfully manage these forests, we must be able to compare their functional capacities with reference or model wetlands. This report contains the results of the Coosawhatchie Bottomland Ecosystem Study during Phase I, 1994 through 1999—the baseline calibration period for development of the reference wetland. Information about the physical and community characteristics and the ecosystem processes is presented in 15 individual reports. Where possible, results from this site are compared with results from other sites, both within the Southern Forested Wetlands Initiative and from other bottomland hardwood research sites. Those who use this information should consider these results preliminary and are invited to contact the authors of each chapter for more detailed information about the methods, results, interpretations, and plans for participation in Phase II. (14)
Eberts, Sandra M.; Schalk, Charles W.; Vose, James; Harvey, Gregory J. 1999. Hydrologic effects of cottonwood trees on a shallow aquifer containing trichloroethene. Hydrological Science and Technology. 15(1-4): 115-121.
In April 1996, a field demonstration was begun to evaluate the use of cottonwood trees to help clean up a trichloroethene contaminated shallow aquifer (< 4 meters below land surface) at the Naval Air Station, Fort Worth, Texas. Transpiration, climate, soil-moisture, and tree-root data were collected and used to parameterize and validate the hydrologic model PROSPER, which was used to simulate evapotranspiration for a 12-year period and to determine the trees' uptake of contaminated water from the saturated zone (aquifer). Simulated annual evapotranspiration from the combined unsaturated and saturated zones ranges from 25 to 48 centimeters for the period when the tree plantations have achieved a closed canopy (year 12 and beyond), depending on assumptions regarding climatic conditions, soil-water availability, and root growth. Simulated annual uptake from the saturated zone for year 12 and beyond ranges from 12 to 28 centimeters. The ground water flow model MODFLOW was used to simulate the effects of this predicted transpiration on ground water flow in the aquifer. Although transpiration from the aquifer is predicted to reach between 50 and 90 percent of the initial volumetric flux of ground water through the demonstration site, the outflow of contaminated ground water from the site will likely be reduced by only 20 to 30 percent. The discrepancy between predictions for volume of water transpired from the aquifer and the reduction in volumetric outflow of contaminated ground water can be attributed to a predicted increase in ground water inflow to the site and the release of water from storage in the aquifer. It may be possible to achieve a greater amount of hydraulic control if additional trees are planted. (15)
Groninger, J.W.; Aust, W.M.; Miwa, M.; Stanturf, J.A. 2000. Growth predictions for tree species planted on marginal soybean lands in the Lower Mississippi Valley. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. 55(1): 91-95.
The establishment of bottomland hardwood forest stands and riparian buffers on frequently flooded soybean (Glycine max.) lands in the Lower Mississippi Valley represents a tremendous opportunity to provide both economic and environmental benefits to the region. Selecting appropriate sites for reestablishing tree cover, accurately predicting the productivity of planted trees and optimally matching species to site are critical for the economic justification and implementation of tree planting in conservation programs.
This study tests a low-cost methodology that incorporates the expert system developed by Baker and Broadfoot to predict tree growth rates calibrated with soils data from recently published Natural Resources Conservation Service soil surveys specific for combinations of tree species and soil series. This information is used to make site index projections for economically marginal soybean lands. Site index estimates ranged from 28.0 m (92 ft) for cottonwood (base age 30) on Mhoon soils to 18.0 m (61 ft) for sycamore (base age 50) on Forestdale soils. Use of this method results in tree growth predictions that are both more mechanistically based and often more conservative than the site index projections published in soil surveys, particularly for species intolerant of flooding during the growing season. (16)
Meadows, James S.; Goelz, J.C.G. 2001. Fifth-year response to thinning in a water oak plantation in north Louisiana. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 25: 31-39.
A 21 ac, 28-yr-old water oak (Quercus nigra L.) plantation, on an old-field loessial site in north Louisiana, was subjected to three thinning treatments during the winter of 1987–1988: (1) no thinning, (2) light thinning to 180 dominant and codominant trees/ac, and (3) heavy thinning to 90 dominant and codominant trees/ac. Prior to thinning, the plantation averaged 356 trees/ac and 86 ft2/ac of basal area, with a quadratic mean diameter of 6.7 in. Thinning reduced stand basal areas to 52 and 34 ft2/ac for the light and heavy thinning treatments, respectively. After 5 yr, both thinning treatments increased diameter growth rates of individual residual trees, both when all trees were considered and when the analysis was limited to dominant and codominant trees only. Neither thinning treatment affected either stand-level volume growth or total yield 5 yr after treatment. However, thinning distributed total volume growth among fewer trees, such that, when trees of all crown classes were considered in the analysis, average annual volume growth per tree increased with increasing intensity of thinning. Both basal area growth and volume growth following light thinning appeared to be sufficient to promote rapid recovery of the stand to a fully stocked condition in the near future. In contrast, heavy thinning reduced density to a severely understocked condition that will prohibit optimum occupancy of the site for a long period. Among the treatments evaluated in this study, light thinning produced the most desirable combination of individual-tree diameter growth and stand-level basal area growth. (17)
Xu, Zicai; Leininger, Theodor D.; Lee, Andy W.C.; Tainter, Frank H. 2001. Chemical properties associated with bacterial wetwood in red oaks. Wood and Fiber Science. 33(1): 76-83.
Bacterial wetwood is a major cause of value loss in the red oak lumber industry in the United States. Red oak trees in Mississippi, South Carolina, and Florida were sampled and evaluated for certain chemical properties possibly associated with the wetwood condition. Specific variables investigated were pH and concentrations of methane, cations (Na+, Ca++, K+, and Mg++), nonstructural carbohydrates, and organic acids (acetate, propionate, and butyrate).
The degree of bacterial wetwood infection and development was greater in red oaks from Mississippi than from South Carolina, as evidenced by increased concentrations of methane, total Na+, total K+, total Ca++, and by decreased concentrations of total sugar and reducing sugar. Of all the variables tested, methane concentration was the best indicator of wetwood in living red oak trees at all three locations. pH was not an indicator of wetwood in living trees or in green red oak lumber. Of the remaining variables tested, greater concentrations of acetic acid, total K+ , and lesser concentrations of nonstructural carbohydrates characterized wetwood-affected trees, but their potential as wetwood indicators depends on wetwood severity, not its mere presence. (18)
Southern Appalachians Research
Rauscher, H. Michael; Young, Michael J.; Webb, Charles D.; Robison, Daniel J. 2000. Testing the accuracy of growth and yield models for southern hardwood forests. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 24(3): 176-185.
The accuracy of ten growth and yield models for Southern Appalachian upland hardwood forests and southern bottomland forests was evaluated. In technical applications, accuracy is the composite of both bias (average error) and precision. Results indicate that GHAT, NATPIS, and a locally calibrated version of NETWIGS may be regarded as being operationally valid growth and yield models for Southern Appalachian yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) and mixed oak (Quercus spp.) forests that fall within the range of characteristics of the test data set. No publicly available growth and yield models specifically developed for southern bottomland hardwood forests exist. Four general models that contain most of the applicable species to predict growth of these forests were tested. SETWIGS was found to be the most accurate of the four models tested, and is recommended for use if the reported level of accuracy is acceptable and the target stand characteristics fall within the range of our test data set. Results indicate that the growth and density dynamics of dense, young stands of both upland and bottomland hardwoods were poorly predicted by the models. Models predicted basal area and density changes in yellow-poplar stands more accurately than mixed hardwoods. Predictions for upland hardwoods were more accurate than those for bottomland hardwoods. Model accuracy uniformly decreases with increasing length of the projection period. (19)
Interior Highlands Research
Cain, Michael D.; Shelton, Michael G. 2001.Natural loblolly and shortleaf pine productivity through 53 years of management under four reproduction cutting methods. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 25(1): 7-16.
A study was initiated in 1943 to evaluate the long-term productivity of loblolly (Pinus taeda L.) and shortleaf pines (P. echinata Mill.) when managed under four reproduction cutting methods—clearcut, heavy seedtree, diameter-limit, and selection—on the Upper Coastal Plain of southeastern Arkansas. Early volume production reflected retention of residual pines, and the clearcut was the least productive method through the first 36 yr. After 53 yr, there were no statistically significant (P = 0.07) differences among cutting methods in sawlog volume production, which averaged 3,800 ft3/ac. In terms of sawlog volume (bd ft/ac, Doyle scale), total production on clearcut, seedtree, and selection plots exceeded (P < 0.01) that on diameter-limit plots by 37 percent, but there were no differences in sawlog volume production among the other cutting methods. Results suggest that forest landowners should consider the advantages and disadvantages of each cutting method when planning their long-term objectives. (20)
Cain, Michael D.; Shelton, Michael G. 2001. Twenty years of natural loblolly and shortleaf pine seed production on the Crossett Experimental Forest in southeastern Arkansas. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 25:1 (40-45).
Loblolly and shortleaf pine (Pinus taeda L. and P. echinata Mill., respectively) seed crops were monitored for 20 consecutive years (1980–1981 through 1999–2000) using seed-collection traps in natural stands on the Upper Coastal Plain of southeastern Arkansas. Each seed-collection period began on October 1 and continued through the end of February of successive years. Sound seeds were separated from void seeds by use of a cut test. During 20 yr, sound seed production ranged from 0 to 2,000,000 /ac. There were six bumper seed crops (>800, 000 sound seeds/ac), nine good seed crops (40, 000–800, 000 sound seeds/ac), and five poor seed crops (<40, 000 sound seeds/ac). Because no poor seed crops occurred back-to-back, the seed supply was adequate for successful natural pine regeneration over the entire monitoring period. During 8 yr of adequate seed production, when weekly seed counts were made, seed dispersal always peaked in early November; therefore, site preparation should be completed before November to maximize seedling catch. (21)
Shelton, Michael G.; Cain, Michael D. 2001. Dispersal and viability of seeds from cones in tops of harvested loblolly pines. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 31: 357-362.
Seed supply is one of the most important determinants of successful natural regeneration. We conducted a study to determine the potential contribution of cones in the tops of harvested loblolly pines (Pinus taeda L.) to the stand’s seed supply if trees were felled after seed maturation but before dispersal. Closed cones, collected in October 1996, were stored in wire cages with periodic removals over 2 years to determine the number and viability of extracted seeds. Storage sites were an opening in a seed-tree stand and a closed-canopy pine-hardwood stand in southeastern Arkansas. Of the initial 83 viable seeds/cone, 73 percent had dispersed in the opening and 63 percent in the closed stand by March 1997, which is considered the end of the normal dispersal period from standing trees. By October 1997, only 1 viable seed/cone remained in the opening and 5 viable seeds/cone in the closed stand, indicating rather complete dispersal or mortality of seeds by the first summer after harvest. Results indicate that cones in tops of trees cut during the 2-month period after seed maturation and before substantial dispersal can make an important contribution to the stand’s seed supply, especially in reproduction cutting methods where most of the trees are harvested. (22)
Large Scale Assessment and Modeling Research
Bragg, Don C. 2001. A local basal area adjustment for crown width prediction. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry. 18(1): 22-28.
Nonlinear crown width regressive equations were developed for 24 species common to the upper Lake States of Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin. Of the species surveyed, 15 produced statistically significant (P < 0.05) local basal area effect coefficients showing a reduction in crown width increasing stand density. No relation between shade tolerance and crown width was apparent, indicating the species-dependence of this parameter. Using adjusted R2 as a guide, nonlinear crown width models adapted for local basal area (NLCWadj) improved predictions for 20 of 24 species over a model lacking this component (NLCW). The ecological significance of the improvement shown for some species may be minor, but for others the difference was substantial (often 8 percent). (23)
Dunning, John B., Jr.; Kilgo, John C. 2000. Integrating basic research and long-term management: a case study using avian research at the Savannah River Site. Studies in Avian Biology. 21: 3-7.
In this introduction to Avian Research at the Savannah River Site: A Model for Integrating Basic Research and Long-term Management, editors Dunning and Kilgo discuss the interrelationship between research and management at the Savannah River Site. They emphasize the increasing need for collaboration between scientists and land managers. Dunning and Kilgo introduce the collection of papers that outline how research in a variety of avian ecology fields has been conducted within a management framework at the Savannah River Site. (24)
Franzreb, Kathleen E.; Lloyd, F. Thomas. 2000. Integration of long-term research into a GIS-based landscape habitat model for the red-cockaded Woodpecker. Studies in Avian Biology. 21:65-74.
The red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis) population at the Savannah River Site in South Carolina has been the subject of intensive management and research activities designed to restore the population. By late 1985, the population was on the verge of being extirpated with only four individuals remaining. Older live pine trees that red-cockaded woodpeckers require for cavity construction were limited as the result of timber harvesting that had occurred primarily prior to the 1950’s. To prevent the loss of this population and to provide for population growth, the habitat is now managed intensively, including construction of artificial cavities, control of cavity competitors, and removal of the hardwood mid-story to improve nesting habitat quality. Along with careful monitoring of the birds, translocations are being undertaken to enhance the number of breeding pairs and the overall population size, as well as to minimize potential adverse genetic consequences of a small, virtually isolated population. During 1986–1996, we completed 54 translocations, installed 305 artificial cavities, and removed 2,304 southern flying squirrels (Glaucomys volans) (a user of red-cockaded woodpecker cavities). During this period, the number of breeding pairs of red-cockaded woodpeckers increased from 1 to 19 and the overall population size grew from 4 to 99 individuals. Additional data collected pursuant to arthropod prey base, foraging behavior, and home range studies, have provided information that is helping us better understand and manage this species. We are in the process of synthesizing these data into a GIS-implemented computer-based landscape model to assess the possible impacts of various management options on the long-term viability of the red-cockaded woodpecker on the site. (25)
Hamel, Paul B.; Dunning, John B., Jr. 2000. An approach to quantifying long-term habitat change on managed forest lands. Studies in Avian Biology. 21:122-129.
Forest land managers must determine the effects of their management on nontarget resources, resources for which no current inventory is available, and for which no current inventory information exists. The tools available to managers to make these determinations consist of the inventory information gathered for those commodities desired to be produced, i.e., the target resources. A method is proposed here, using available land use records and bird data sets for the Savannah River Site, to reconstruct past land use conditions and bird community composition and distribution. In addition to describing habitat change and resource response, the method can estimate the amount of uncertainty inherent in assessing implications of land management decisions for nontarget resources. (26)
Johnsen,Kurt; Samuelson, Lisa; Teskey, Robert; and others. 2001. Process models as tools in forestry research and management. Forest Science. 47(1): 2-8.
Forest process models are mathematical representations of biological systems that incorporate our understanding of physiological and ecological mechanisms into predictive algorithms. These models were originally designed and used for research purposes, but are being developed for use in practical forest management. Process models designed for research typically require complicated and intensive data, whereas models designed for management strive to use simpler and more readily available data and provide predictions useful for forest managers. In this article, we review some different types of process models, examine their requirements and utility in research and forest management, and discuss research priority areas that will increase their accuracy and application. We conclude that soil and nutritional limitations are the most difficult model components in predicting growth responses using process models. (27)
Kilgo, John C.; Franzreb, Kathleen E.; Gauthreaux, Sidney A., Jr.; and others. 2000. Effects of long-term forest management on a regional avifauna. Studies in Avian Biology. 21:81-86.
We compared breeding bird populations on and off of the Savannah River Site, SC, to determine whether management practices have affected abundance and composition of the resident avifauna. We assessed relative abundance by comparing Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data from six routes off the Savannah River Site with three surrogate routes generated using point-count data from four research projects on the Savannah River Site. Total number of species per route did not differ on- and off-site. Total number of birds per route was greater off the Savannah River Site than on the Savannah River Site. Twenty-three species were more abundant on than off the Savannah River Site, and 33 species were more abundant off than on the Savannah River Site. Species more abundant off the Savannah River Site primarily were those that prefer agricultural or urban habitats, whereas those more abundant on the Savannah River Site primarily prefer mature forest habitat. We conclude that management practices on the Savannah River Site have resulted in a landscape that supports many species not otherwise common in the region. (28)
Kilgo, John C.; Miller, Karl V.; Moore, William F. 2000. Coordinating short-term projects into an effective research program: effects of site preparation methods on bird communities in pine plantations. Studies in Avian Biology. 21:144-147.
Several short-term projects conducted at the Savannah River Site have focused on the effects on avian populations of different techniques of preparing a site for tree planting in young pine plantations. The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of these studies, to summarize the information they provide regarding the effects of pine management on avian communities, and to demonstrate how multiple short-term projects can be used to address pressing management issues. O'Connell, Sparling, and Branch examined breeding and wintering bird use of areas treated with several mechanical and chemical site preparation methods. Overall, there were few treatment-related effects on bird populations. Both O'Connell and Sparling believed that the few differences in bird use of treatment plots were associated with minor differences in the structural diversity of the vegetation. Each of these short-term studies provided timely information on an issue of management importance and, taken together, they provide a more comprehensive picture of the effects of site preparation methods on bird communities in pine plantations than a single long-term study. (29)
Prestemon, Jeffrey P. 2000. Public open access and private timber harvests: theory and application to the effects of trade liberalization in Mexico. Environmental and Resource Economics. 17: 311-334.
A common popular assertion is that trade liberalization encourages deforestation. But whether this is true depends on how trade policies affect the allocation of land among competing uses and how they influence illegal cutting of public forests. A model is presented that allows for forests to be either public or private, and public forests are divided into protected (or managed) and threatened categories. Effects of price changes are shown on each part of the forest. An empirical version of the model is applied to the case of Mexico with NAFTA. Most scenarios considered show that NAFTA will have positive long-run effects on forest cover in Mexico but that this is net of losses on private lands. (30)
Prestemon, Jeffrey P.; Pye, John M. A technique for merging areas in Timber Mart-South data. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 24(4): 219-229.
For over 20 yr, Timber Mart-South (TMS) has been distributing prices of various wood products from southern forests. In the beginning of 1988, the reporting frequency changed from monthly to quarterly, a change readily addressed through a variety of established statistical techniques. A more significant statistical challenge is Timber Mart-South's change in 1992 from (typically) three reporting regions per State to two. We developed a conversion technique to address this change in reporting areas, permitting longitudinal analyses of the current two regions per State but extending back to the beginning of Timber Mart-South's reports in 1976. We report conversion factors for every State's regions, verify the statistical nature of all time series created using them, and report tests of seamlessness. We find that our technique enables the creation of new, seamless series for pine sawtimber stumpage and delivered sawlogs, and pine and hardwood pulpwood stumpage and delivered logs. In only 30 out of 126 cases were we able to identify remaining regime shifts in the time-series of quarterly prices that corresponded with the 1992 boundary reconfigurations. However, these statistically significant shifts may not be related to the boundary reconfigurations. (31)
Raunikar, Ronald; Buongiorno, Joseph; Prestemon, Jeffrey P.; Abt, Karen Lee. 2000. Financial performance of mixed-age naturally regenerated loblolly-hardwood stands in the South Central United States. Forest Policy and Economics. 1: 331-346.
To estimate the financial performance of a natural mixed species and mixed-age management in the loblolly-pine forest type, we examined 991 FIA plots in the South Central States. The plots were of the loblolly pine forest type, mixed-age, and had been regenerated naturally. We gauged the financial performance of each plot from the equivalent annual income (EAI) produced by growth and harvest, between two successive inventories. The real price EAI (REAI) measured the financial performance based on the real price change, net of inflation, between surveys. The constant price EAI (CEAI) measured stand productivity at prices at the time of the first survey. Thus, the REAI is a measure of real economic performance, including timber growth and price changes. In contrast, the CEAI is a quantity index of timber growth, the growth of each product being weighted by its price. During the period 1977–1994, the main determinant of the REAI was the price change. Due to an overall favorable price trend, the mean REAI ($158 ha-1 year-1) was much greater than the mean CEAI ($24 ha-1 year-1). Due to increasing prices, the best performing plots had very high stocking levels. Thus, the best financial strategy was to hold the stock, making the opportunity cost of conservation negative. Instead, CEAI tended to be lower on stands with high basal area, and higher in stands with many trees, a low share of hardwoods, and many trees near sawtimber size. (32)
White, David L.; Gaines, Karen F. 2000. The Savannah River Site: site description, land use, and management history. Studies in Avian Biology. 21: 8-17.
The 78,000-ha Savannah River Site, which is located in the Upper Coastal Plain of South Carolina along the Savannah River, was established as a nuclear production facility in 1951 by the Atomic Energy Commission. The site's physical and vegetative characteristics, land use history, and the impacts of management and operations are described. Aboriginal and early European settlement was primarily along streams, where much of the farming and timber cutting have occurred. Woodland grazing occurred in the uplands and lowlands. Land use intensity increased after the Civil War and peaked in the 1920’s. Impacts from production of cotton and corn, naval stores, fuel wood, and timber left only scattered patches of relatively untouched land, and, coupled with grazing and less-frequent fire, severely reduced the extent of longleaf pine (Pinus palustrus) ecosystems. After 1951, the USDA Forest Service, under the direction of the Atomic Energy Commission, initiated a large-scale reforestation effort and continued to manage the site's forests. Over the last decade, forest management efforts have shifted to recovering the red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis) and restoring longleaf pine habitat. A research set-aside program was established in the 1950’s and is now administered by the Savannah River Ecology Laboratory. Impacts from thermal effluents, fly-ash runoff, construction of radioactive waste facilities, and release of low-level radionuclides and certain metals have been assessed by the Savannah River Ecology Laboratory and other researchers. (33)
Inventory and Monitoring Research
Burkman, William G.; Bechtold, William A. 2000. Has Virginia pine declined? The use of Forest Health Monitoring and other information in the determination. In Hansen, Mark; Burk, Thomas, eds. Integrated tools for natural resources inventories in the 21st century: an international conference on the inventory and monitoring of forested ecosystems; 1998 August 16-19; Boise, ID. Gen. Tech. Rep. NCRS-212. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Research Station: 258-264.
This paper examines the current status of Virginia pine, focusing on Forest Health Monitoring (FHM) results and using Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) information to determine if Virginia pine is showing a decline. An examination of crown condition data from live trees in the FHM program from 1991 through 1997 showed that Virginia pine had significantly poorer crown conditions for crown dieback and crown density. The crown variable relationships were poorer for trees that died after 1993. In addition, the numbers of Virginia pines on the FHM plots declined during the same time period, even accounting for ingrowth. FIA information across the range of Virginia pine has shown that mortality was 48 percent and removals were 92 percent of net annual growth. Virginia pine is showing a decline based on both FHM crown rating information and FIA data for removals and growth, but this is typical and expected due to the shade intolerance and short-lived nature of Virginia pine. (34)
Clark, Neil A.; Wynne, Randolph H.; Schmoldt, Daniel L.; Winn, Matt. 2000. Digital terrestrial photogrammetric methods for tree stem analysis. In Hansen, Mark; Burk, Thomas, eds. Integrated tools for natural resources inventories in the 21st century: an international conference on the inventory and monitoring of forested ecosystems; 1998 August 16-19; Boise, ID. Gen. Tech. Rep. NCRS-212. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Research Station: 353-363.
A digital camera was used to measure diameters at various heights along the stem on 20 red oak trees. Diameter at breast height ranged from 16 to over 60 cm, and height to a 10-cm top ranged from 12 to 20 m. The chi-square maximum anticipated error of geometric mean diameter estimates at the 95 percent confidence level was within ± 4 cm for all heights when obtained at a distance of 12 m or greater. Error increased with increased stem height from ± 3 to ± 7 cm for heights from 1 to 20 m. In general, the error is equivalent to three times the instrument precision, which varies with distance. Two-thirds of the volume estimates were within 8 percent of "actual" volumes. (35)
Forest cover types. 2000. 1: 7,500,000; compiled by U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service; colored. Reston, VA: U.S. Department of Interior, Geological Survey.
Based on data compiled by the USDA Forest Service, the USDI Geological Survey produced a forest cover types map of the United States, including Alaska and Hawaii. (36)
Johnson, Tony G.; Steppleton, Carolyn D. 2001. Southern pulpwood production, 1999. Resour. Bull. SRS-57. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 34 p.
In 1999, the South’s production of pulpwood declined 5 percent to 71.1 million cords. Roundwood production dropped to 49.2 million cords and accounted for 69 percent of the total pulpwood production. The use of wood residue remained stable at 21.9 million cords. Alabama continues to lead the South in total production, number of mills, and pulping capacity. Currently, 97 mills are operating and drawing wood from the 13 Southern States. Southern mills’ pulping capacity of 134,418 tons per day accounts for more than two-thirds of the Nation’s total pulping capacity. (37)
Lynch, Thomas B.; Huebschmann, Michael M.; Murphy, Paul A. 2000. A survival model for individual shortleaf pine trees in even-aged natural stands. In Hansen, Mark; Burk, Thomas, eds. Integrated tools for natural resources inventories in the 21st century: an international conference on the inventory and monitoring of forested ecosystems; 1998 August 16-19; Boise, ID. Gen. Tech. Rep. NCRS-212. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Research Station: 533-538.
A model was developed that predicts the probability of survival for individual shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata Mill.) trees growing in even-aged natural stands. Data for model development were obtained from the first two measurements of permanently established plots located in naturally occurring shortleaf pine forests on the Ouachita and Ozark National Forests in western Arkansas and eastern Oklahoma. The logistic function was used to model survival probability. Parameters were estimated by using logistic regression in which the dependent variable was "1" for trees alive during both inventories and "0" for trees that died prior to the second inventory. Examination of several combinations of independent variables (representing tree size, relative position of the tree in the stand, stand density, and stand age) yielded the following model:
POS = (1 + exp(-(b0 + b1/DR + b2SBA + b3DH)))-1
where POS is annual probability of survival, DR is the ratio of quadratic mean diameter to individual tree d.b.h., SBA is stand basal area in square feet per acre, DH is average height of dominant and codominant trees in feet, b0, b1, b2, b3 are parameter estimates. A chi-square evaluation was performed to test model performance. This tree survival model is being used to estimate probability of individual tree survival in a distance-independent individual tree simulator for shortleaf pine. (38)
Mangold, Robert D. Overview of the Forest Health Monitoring Program. 2000. In Hansen, Mark; Burk, Thomas, eds. Integrated tools for natural resources inventories in the 21st century: an international conference on the inventory and monitoring of forested ecosystems; 1998 August 16-19; Boise, ID. Gen. Tech. Rep. NCRS-212. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Research Station: 129-140.
This paper presents an overview of the Forest Health Monitoring Program (FHM), a partnership among the USDA Forest Service, State Foresters, universities, and the USDI Bureau of Land Management. The purpose of FHM is to annually assess the condition of the Nation’s forested ecosystems in a standardized way. There are four components of the program—Detection Monitoring, Evaluation Monitoring, Intensive Site Ecosystem Monitoring, and Research on Monitoring Techniques. At the current level of FHM development, approximately 60 percent of all forest lands in the lower 48 States, regardless of ownership, are covered by the Detection Monitoring permanent plot system. (39)
Reams, Gregory A.; McCollum, Joseph M. 2000. The use of multiple imputation in the Southern Annual Forest Inventory System. In Hansen, Mark; Burk, Thomas, eds. Integrated tools for natural resources inventories in the 21st century: an international conference on the inventory and monitoring of forested ecosystems; 1998 August 16-19; Boise, ID. Gen. Tech. Rep. NCRS-212. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Research Station: 228-233.
The Southern Research Station is currently implementing an annual forest survey in 7 of the 13 States that it is responsible for surveying. The Southern Annual Forest Inventory System (SAFIS) sampling design is a systematic sample of five interpenetrating grids, whereby an equal number of plots are measured each year. The area- representative and time-series nature of the SAFIS plot design offers increased flexibility in analyzing the data for both large- and small-domain means. Users of FIA information are often interested in the estimates of small-domain means, at the multi-county or FIA survey unit level. Restricting analyses to the most recently measured annual panel results in many missing cells in standard inventory tables. Rather than treat the four unmeasured panels as missing, imputed values are used to update plots in all panels. An initial set of rules and solutions for imputing are provided for SAFIS. (40)
Roesch, Francis A. 2000. Pseudo-CFI for industrial forest industries. In Hansen, Mark; Burk, Thomas, eds. Integrated tools for natural resources inventories in the 21st century: an international conference on the inventory and monitoring of forested ecosystems; 1998 August 16-19; Boise, ID. Gen. Tech. Rep. NCRS-212. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Research Station: 165-170.
Corporate inventory systems have historically had a greater spatial and temporal intensity than is common in the public sector. For many corporations, these inventory systems might be described as dynamic in that current estimates rely on a small amount of recent data and a large amount of information resulting from the imputation of older data that have been subjected to various growth and mortality models. Usually the "best available" models are used for this purpose, with little attention paid to any population dynamics that may have occurred since development of the models. This paper gives the theory and an example application of a family of sample designs that possess continuous forest inventory (CFI) attributes. This family of Pseudo-CFI sample designs was devised to facilitate the incorporation of a continuous monitoring and calibration mechanism for the imputed data. (41)
Rudis, Victor A. 2000 Using widely spaced observations of land use, forest attributes, and intrusions to map resource potential and human impact probability. In Hansen, Mark; Burk, Thomas, eds. Integrated tools for natural resources inventories in the 21st century: an international conference on the inventory and monitoring of forested ecosystems; 1998 August 16-19; Boise, ID. Gen. Tech. Rep. NCRS-212. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Research Station: 721-733.
Scant information exists about the spatial extent of human impact on forest resource supplies, i.e., depreciative and nonforest uses. I used observations of ground-sampled land use and intrusions on forest land to map the probability of resource use and human impact for broad areas. Data came from a seven State survey region (Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, east Oklahoma, Tennessee, and east Texas) containing 32,000 land-use plots, with detailed attribute information for about half of these plots classed as forest land. Forest land attributes included human-associated intrusions (beverage containers, garbage, livestock grazing, timber management activities), proximity to nonforest land, forest fragment size, ownership, and forest type. Tools included geographic information software, a 100 MHz Pentium I processor, and 0.4-ha land-use and forest resource sample plots nominally spaced at 4.8-km intervals. I transferred information from sample plot locations to grid cells sized large enough to minimize computer memory storage and computation requirements, and small enough to conservatively model information from adjacent cells with plot information and include no more than one sample plot per cell. Results used spatially moving averages, with examples, to assess the spatial context of forest resources. Maps displayed regions of high and low probability of altered forest resources, forest attributes, and patterns qualitatively correlated with nonforest land-use neighborhoods. Findings suggested land areas with potential for multiple resource uses and forest land vulnerable to nonforest conversion. (42)
Steinman, Jim. 2000. Tracking the health of trees over time on Forest Health Monitoring plots. In Hansen, Mark; Burk, Thomas, eds. Integrated tools for natural resources inventories in the 21st century: an international conference on the inventory and monitoring of forested ecosystems; 1998 August 16-19; Boise, ID. Gen. Tech. Rep. NCRS-212. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Research Station: 334-339.
The Forest Health Monitoring (FHM) Program was initiated in 1990 as a cooperative effort between the USDA Forest Service and the National Association of State Foresters. Program efforts include detecting changes in tree health from a national grid of one-sixth acre permanent sample plots. Tree data have been collected in various States since 1991, and include species, diameter at breast height (d.b.h.), status (live, dead, or cut), and various ratings of crown condition and damage.
In this study, remeasured tree data were used to track changes in health over a 4-yr period, by using status (live, dead, or cut), crown dieback, transparency, and density, and damage measurements of type, severity, and location. Initial analyses identified categories of individual crown and damage measurements associated with trees that eventually died. These thresholds were then integrated into categorical models to estimate the probability of mortality for trees with different combinations of crown and damage conditions. Separate models were constructed for different groups of tree species, with the premise that each group has a unique set of tolerable amounts of damage and foliage loss. Analyses also included statistical tests to verify differences among models.
Results will be incorporated into a field guide for use by land managers to help assess tree health, predict the likelihood of mortality, and rate the health of forest stands. Use of this tool will also help foresters make silvicultural decisions to select trees to be cut when regeneration, thinning, pre-salvage, or salvage operations are considered. (43)
Foundation Programs Research
Oswald, John D.; Schiff, Nathan M. 20001. A new species of the genus Dilar Rambur (Neuroptera: Dilaridae) from Borneo. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington. 103(1): 74-80.
is described as a new species from lowland rainforest habitat in the Malaysian State of Sarawak on the island of Borneo. Diagnoses are provided to distinguish D. macleodi from the four other dilarid species that have been reported from the peninsula of Indochina or the Malay Archipelago. (44)Dilar macleodi
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Thomson, Alan J.; Schmoldt, Daniel L. 2001. Ethics in computer software design and development. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture. 30: 85-102.
Over the past 20 years, computer software has become integral and commonplace for operational and management tasks throughout agricultural and natural resource disciplines. During this software infusion, however, little thought has been afforded human impacts, both good and bad. This paper examines current ethical issues of software system design and development in relation to privacy, accuracy, property, accessibility, and effects on quality of life. These issues are explored in the context of simulation models, databases, geographic information systems, and artificial intelligence programs, especially expert systems. New approaches to system development place a much higher emphasis on the effects of system deployment within a complex human environment. Software design decisions often depend on more than one ethical issue, possibly conflicting, where the appropriate ethical choice is not always clear cut. Professional codes of ethics do little to change peoples' behavior; rather, incentives for using an ethical approach to software development may lie in significantly increased likelihood of system success. (45)
Yuhas, Donald E.; Isaacson, Bruce G.; Schmoldt, Daniel L.; Wengert, Gene. 1999. Ultrasonic propagation properties of red oak [Abstract]. In: Pollock, David G., ed. Proceedings of the eleventh international symposium on nondestructive testing of wood; 1998 September 9-11; Madison, WI. Madison, WI: Forest Products Society: 93.
This work was motivated by the need to identify ultrasonic parameters that exhibit the greatest sensitivity to wood degradation as the result of bacterial infection: the so-called "wetwood" condition. Wetwood infection creates microscopic changes to the wood structure, which then surface as checks and shake following drying. Slower drying schedules can often mitigate the appearance of these drying flaws, however, so there is value in being able to identify problem boards prior to the drying stage.
In order to generate baseline ultrasonic property data on red oak, a series of drying experiments was conducted to develop populations of "normal" and "bacterial damaged" wood. For these studies, a total of 30 red oak samples was taken from boards harvested from two different U.S. geographical regions (Wisconsin and Virginia). We describe oak over the frequency range from 100 to 500 kHz. Although numerous ultrasonic studies have been conducted using p-waves (longitudinal), very few experiments have been reported that combine both p-wave and s-wave (shear) measurements. To separate the different ultrasonic modes, all ultrasonic data was acquired using highly damped transducers.
By making repeat measurements at several stages during the drying cycle, we were able to quantify the relationships among various ultrasonic parameters and other wood properties such as moisture content, wood macrostructure, geographical origin, and bacterial damage. Our measurement matrix included ultrasonic velocities, attenuation, and frequency dependent attenuation for all ultrasonic modes. While none of the velocity modes showed any sensitivity to bacterial damage, several attenuation modes exhibited a substantial increase that was attributed to bacterial damage. This presentation described the test methods, showed data for all ultrasonic modes, and discussed the potential for using attenuation as a nondestructive method to determine the extent of bacterial infection in oak. (46)
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