Opium Poppy Cultivation and Heroin Processing in Southeast
Asia
![cover photograph of poppies](/peth04/20041017122022im_/http://www.dea.gov/pubs/intel/20026/cover.jpg)
March 2001
DEA-20026
CONTENTS
ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE OPIUM POPPY
THE OPIUM POPPY PLANT
OPIUM POPPY GROWING AREAS
FIELD SELECTION AND LAND CLEARING
LAND PREPARATION AND CULTIVATION METHODS
OPIUM HARVESTING METHODS
COOKING OPIUM
EXTRACTION OF MORPHINE FROM OPIUM
CONVERSION OF MORPHINE TO HEROIN BASE
CONVERSION OF HEROIN BASE TO HEROIN NO. 3
CONVERSION OF HEROIN BASE TO HEROIN NO. 4
CONCLUSIONS
GLOSSARY
|
ORIGIN
AND HISTORY OF THE OPIUM POPPY |
The source of opium is the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum, one of the
few species of Papaver that produces opium. Through centuries of cultivation
and breeding the poppy for its opium, a species of the plant evolved that is
now known as somniferum. The genus, Papaver, is the Greek word
for poppy. The species, somniferum, is Latin for sleep-inducing.
The psychological effects of opium may have been known to the ancient Sumerians
(circa 4000 B.C.) whose symbol for the poppy was hul (joy) and gil
(plant). The plant was known in Europe at least 4,000 years ago, as evidenced
by fossil remains of poppy seed cake and poppy pods found in the Swiss lake
dwellings of the Neolithic Age. Opium was probably consumed by the ancient Egyptians
and was known to the Greeks as well. References to the poppy are found in Homers
works The Iliad and The Odyssey. Hippocrates (460-357 B.C.), the
Father of Medicine, recommended drinking the juice of the white poppy mixed
with the seed of nettle.
The opium poppy probably reached China about the 7th century A.D. through the
efforts of Arab traders who advocated its use for medicinal purposes. In Chinese
literature, however, there are earlier references to its use. The noted Chinese
surgeon Hua To of the Three Kingdoms (220-264 A.D.) used opium preparations
and Cannabis indica for his patients to swallow before undergoing major
surgery.
The beginning of widespread opium use in China has been associated by some
historians with the introduction of tobacco into that country by the Dutch from
Java in the 17th century. The Chinese were reported to mix opium with tobacco.
The practice was adopted throughout the area and eventually resulted in increased
opium smoking, both with and without tobacco.
In 1803, the German pharmacist F. W. Serturner isolated and described the principal
alkaloid in opium, which he named morphium after Morpheus, the Greek god of
dreams. The invention of the syringe and the discovery of other alkaloids of
opium soon followed: codeine in 1832 and papaverine in 1848. By
the 1850s, the medicinal use of pure alkaloids, rather than crude opium preparations,
was common in Europe.
In the United States, opium preparations became widely available in the 19th
century and morphine was used extensively as a painkiller for wounded soldiers
during the Civil War. The inevitable result was opium addiction, contemporarily
called the army disease or soldiers disease. These
opium and morphine abuse problems prompted a scientific search for potent, but
nonaddictive, painkillers. In the 1870s, chemists developed an opium-based and
supposedly nonaddictive substitute for morphine. The Bayer Pharmaceutical Company
of Germany was the first to produce the new drug in large quantities under the
brand name Heroin. This product was obtained by the acetylation of morphine.
Soon thereafter studies showed heroin to have narcotic and addictive properties
far exceeding those of morphine. Although heroin has been used in the United
Kingdom in the treatment of the terminally ill, its medical value
is a subject of intense controversy.
The opium poppy, Papaver somniferum, is an annual plant, i.e., the plant
matures one time, and does not regenerate itself. New seed must be planted each
season. From a small seed, it grows, flowers, and bears fruit (a pod) only once.
The entire growth cycle for most varieties of this plant takes about 120 days.
The tiny seeds (like the seeds on a poppy seed roll) germinate quickly in warm
air and sufficient soil moisture. In less than 6 weeks, the young plant emerges
from the soil, grows a set of four leaves, and resembles a small cabbage in appearance.
The lobed, dentate (jagged-edged) leaves are glaucous green with a dull gray or
blue tint.
Within
2 months, the plant will grow from 1 to 2 feet in height, with one primary,
long, smooth stem. The upper portion of this stem is without leaves and is called
the peduncle. One or more secondary stems, called tillers,
may grow from the main stem of the plant. Single poppy plants in Southeast Asia
often have more than one tiller.
The main stem of a fully matured Papaver somniferum ranges between 2
and 5 feet in height. The green leaves are oblong, toothed and lobed and vary
between 4 to 15 inches in length at maturity. The matured leaves have no commercial
value except for use as animal fodder.
As the plant grows tall, the main stem and each tiller terminate in a flower
bud. During the development of the bud, the peduncle portion of the stem elongates
and forms a distinctive hook that causes the bud to be turned upside
down. As the flower develops, the peduncle straightens and the buds point upward.
A day or two after the buds first point upward, the two outer segments of the
bud, called sepals, fall away, exposing the flower petals. At first,
the exposed flower blossom is crushed and crinkled, but the petals soon expand
and become smooth in the sun. Poppy flowers have four petals. The petals may
be single or double and are either white, pink, reddish purple, crimson red,
or variegated.
Opium poppies generally flower after about 90 days of growth and continue to
flower for 2 to 3 weeks. The petals eventually drop to reveal a small, round,
green pod which continues to develop. These pods (also called seed pods, capsules,
bulbs, or poppy heads) are either oblate, elongated, or globular and mature
to about the size of a chicken egg. The oblate-shaped pods are more common in
Southeast Asia.
Only the pod portion of the plant can produce opium alkaloids. The skin of
the poppy pod encloses the wall of the pod ovary. The ovary wall consists of
three layers: the outer, middle and inner layers. The plants latex (raw
opium gum) is produced within the ovary wall and drains into the middle layer
through a system of vessels and tubes within the pod. The cells of the middle
layer secrete more than 95 percent of the plants opium when the pod is
scored and harvested.
Farmers harvest the opium from each pod while it remains on the plant by making
vertical incisions with a specially designed homemade knife. After the opium
is collected, the pods are allowed to dry on the stem. Once dry, the largest
and most productive pods are cut from the stem, and the seeds are removed and
dried in the sun before storing for the following years planting. An alternative
method of collecting planting seeds is to collect them from intentionally unscored
pods, because scoring may diminish the quality of the seeds. Aside from being
used as planting seed, poppy seed may also be pressed to produce cooking oil.
Poppy seed oil may also be used in the manufacture of paints and perfumes. Poppy
seed oil is straw yellow in color, odorless, and has a pleasant, almond-like
taste.
|
OPIUM
POPPY GROWING AREAS |
The opium poppy thrives in temperate, warm climates with low humidity, and
requires only a moderate amount of water before and during the early stages
of growth.
The opium poppy plant can be grown in a variety of soilsclay, sandy loam,
sandy, and sandy claybut it grows best in a sandy loam soil. This type
of soil has good moisture-retentive and nutrient-retentive properties, is easily
cultivated, and has a favorable structure for root development. Clay soil types
are hard and difficult to pulverize into a good soil texture. The roots of a
young poppy plant cannot readily penetrate clay soils, and growth is inhibited.
Sand soil, by contrast, does not retain sufficient water or nutrients for proper
growth of the plant.
Excessive moisture or extremely arid conditions will affect the poppy plants
growth adversely thus reducing the alkaloid content. Poppy plants can become
waterlogged and die after a heavy rainfall in poorly drained soil. Heavy rainfall
in the second and third months of growth can leach alkaloids from the plant
and spoil the harvest. Dull, rainy, or cloudy weather during this growth stage
may reduce both the quantity and the quality of the alkaloid content.
The
major legal opium production areas in the world today are in government-regulated
opium farms in India, Turkey, and Tasmania (Australia). The major illegal growing
areas are in Southwest Asia (Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran) and in the highlands
of Mainland Southeast Asia (Burma, Laos, Vietnam, and Thailand) popularly
known as the Golden Triangle. Opium poppy is also grown in Colombia,
Mexico, and Lebanon.
Opium poppies containing small amounts of opium alkaloids were, at one time,
widely grown as an ornamental plant and for seeds in the United States. The
possession of this plant was declared illegal by the Opium Poppy Control Act
of 1942.
The highlands of Mainland Southeast Asia, at elevations of 800 meters or more
above sea level, are prime poppy-growing areas. Generally speaking, these poppy-farming
areas do not require irrigation, fertilizer, or insecticides for successful
opium yields. Most of the opium poppies of Southeast Asia are found in Burma,
specifically in the Wa and Kokang areas which are in the northeastern quadrant
of the Shan State of Burma. Laos is the second-largest illicit opium producing
country in Southeast Asia and third-largest in the world behind Afghanistan
and Burma. In Laos poppy is cultivated extensively in Houaphan and Xiangkhoang
Provinces, in addition to the six northern provinces of Bokeo, Louangnamtha,
Louangphabang, Oudomxai, Phongsali, and Xaignabouli. Poppy is also grown in
many of the remote, mountainous areas of northern Thailand, particularly in
Chiang Mai, Chiang Rai, Mae Hong Son, Nan, and Tak Provinces. Successful eradication
programs together with highland programs of agricultural development and crop
substitution in Northern Thailand have reduced poppy cultivation to minimal
levels.
Lai Chau Province, situated between China and Laos, is a major opium poppy
cultivation area in Vietnam, as is Nghe An Province, in the areas bordering
Laos. In China, small crops of opium poppies are cultivated by ethnic minority
groups in the mountainous frontier regions of Yunnan Province, particularly
along the border area with Burmas Kokang area in the Shan State.
It is noteworthy that the dominant ethnic groups of Mainland Southeast Asia
are not poppy cultivators. The Burmans and Shan of Burma, the Lao of Laos, the
Thai of Thailand, the Han Chinese of Yunnan, China, and the Vietnamese of Vietnam
are lowlanders and do not traditionally cultivate opium poppies. Rather, it
is the ethnic minority highlander groups, such as the Wa, Pa-O, Palaung, Lahu,
Lisu, Hmong, and Akha who grow poppies in the highlands of Mainland Southeast
Asia.
A typical household of Mainland Southeast Asian highlanders averages between
five and 10 persons, including two to five adults. Such a household of poppy
farmers can cultivate and harvest about 1 acre of opium poppy per year. Most
of the more fertile fields can support opium poppy cultivation for 10 years
or more without fertilization or insecticides before the soil is depleted and
new fields must be cleared.
|
FIELD
SELECTION AND LAND CLEARING |
Land Areas Standard Units
of Measurement
![Land Areas Standard Units of Measurement graphic](/peth04/20041017122022im_/http://www.dea.gov/pubs/intel/20026/fieldsize.gif)
U.S.
football field
4,459 sq. meters
0.533 hectare
1.11 acres
2.79 rai
8 mu
|
In choosing a field to grow opium poppies, soil quality, access to sunlight,
and acidity are critical factors, so experienced poppy farmers choose their
fields carefully. In Mainland Southeast Asia, westerly orientations are typically
preferred to optimize sun exposure. Most fields are on mountain slopes at elevations
of 1,000 meters (3,000 feet) or more above sea level. Slope gradients of between
20 to 40 degrees are considered best for drainage of rainwater.
In Mainland Southeast Asia, virgin land is prepared by cutting and piling all
brush, vines, and small trees in the field during March, at the end of the dry
season. After allowing the brush to dry in the hot sun for several days, the
field is set afire. This method, called slash-and-burn or swidden
agriculture, is commonly practiced by dry field farmersboth highland and
lowlandthroughout Mainland Southeast Asia in order to ready the land for
a variety of field crops, including opium poppy. The ash in the burnt fields
is a natural source of nutrients for the soil.
Before the rainy season in April, thousands of highland poppy fields all over
the region are set ablaze. A fog-like yellow haze hangs over the area for weeks,
reducing visibility for hundreds of miles. In the mountains, the density of
haze can block out the sun and sting the eyes. Nearby provincial airports are
occasionally closed due to poor visibility caused by burning fields.
|
Dry
season in Mainland Southeast Asia |
A typical highlander family will plant an area of 2 or 3 rai in opium
poppy (2.53 rai is equivalent to 1 acre compared to the smaller size
mu which is the standard land measurement used in China). In areas where
drug financiers are active, larger plots are cultivated.
|
sq.
meters |
hectare |
acres |
rai |
mu |
hectare |
10,000 |
1.00 |
2.46 |
6.23 |
15.0 |
acre |
4,033 |
0.403 |
1.00 |
2.53 |
6.05 |
rai
(lai) |
1,600 |
0.160 |
0.397 |
1.00 |
2.40 |
mu |
667 |
0.0667 |
0.165 |
0.417 |
1.0 |
|
LAND
PREPARATION AND CULTIVATION METHODS |
Toward the end of the rainy season in August or September, highland farmers
in Mainland Southeast Asia prepare fields selected for opium poppy planting.
By this time, the ash resulting from the burn-off of the previous dry season
has settled into the soil, providing additional nutrients, especially potash.
The soil is turned with long-handled hoes after it is softened by the rains.
The farmers then break up the large clumps of soil. Weeds and stones are tossed
aside and the ground is leveled off.
Traditionally, most highland and upland farmers in Mainland Southeast Asia
do not use fertilizer, but in recent years poppy farmers have started using
both natural and chemical fertilizers to increase yields. Chicken manure, human
feces, or the regions abundant natural supply of bat droppings are often
mixed into the planting soil before the poppy seed is planted. The planting
is usually completed by the end of October.
The opium poppy seed can be sown several ways: broadcast or tossed by hand;
or fix-dropped by hand into shallow holes dug with a dibble stick, which is
used to poke holes in the soil. About 1 kilogram of opium poppy seed is needed
to sow 1 acre of land. Approximately 3 kilograms (6.6 pounds) of seed are used
for each hectare (equivalant to 2.46 acres). The seeds may be white, yellow,
coffee-colored, gray, black, or blue. Seed color is not related to the color
of the flower petals. Beans, cabbages, cotton, parsley, spinach, squash, or
tobacco are usually planted with opium poppy. These crops neither help nor hinder
the cultivation of the opium poppy, but are planted solely for personal consumption
or as a cash crop.
In
the highlands of Mainland Southeast Asia, it is also common practice to plant
maize and opium poppies in the same fields each year. The maize keeps down excessive
weeds and provides feed for the farmers pigs and ponies. It is grown from
April to August. After harvesting the maize, with the stalks still standing
in the fields, the ground is weeded and pulverized. Just before the end of the
rainy season, in successive sowings throughout September and October, the poppy
seed is broadcast among the maize stalks. These stalks protect young opium poppy
plants from heavy rains.
The
opium poppy plants form leaves in the first growth stage, called the cabbage
or lettuce stage. After a month of growth, when the opium
poppy is about a foot high, some of the weaker plants are removed (called
thinning) to allow the other plants more room to grow. The
optimum spacing between plants is between 20 and 40 centimeters, or about
8 to 12 plants per square meter. Some researchers in Northern Thailand
have reported as many as 18 plants per square meter, but such crowding
is believed to hinder plant growth.
During the first 2 months, the opium poppies may be damaged or
stunted by nature because of the lack of adequate sunshine, excessive rainfall,
insects, worms, hailstones, early frost, or trampling by animals. The third
month of growth does not require as much care as the first 2 months. Between
3 and 4 months after plantingfrom late December to early February, the
opium poppies are in full bloom. Mature plants range between 3 and 5 feet in
height. Most opium poppy varieties in Southeast Asia produce three to five mature
pods per plant.
A typical opium poppy field has 250,000 poppy plants per hectare, with a range
of 300,000 to 500,000 opium-producing pods. The actual opium yield will depend
largely on weather conditions and the precautions taken by individual farmers
to safeguard the crop. The farmer and his family generally move into the field
for the final 2 weeks, setting up a small field hut on the edge of the opium
poppy field.
The scoring of the pods (also called lancing, incising, or tapping) begins
about 2 weeks after the flower petals fall from the pods. The farmer may examine
the pod and the tiny crown portion on the top of the pod very carefully before
scoring. The grayish-green pod will become a dark green color as it matures
and it will swell in size. Another indication of the pods readiness for
tapping is if the points of the pods crown are standing straight out or
are curved upward. If the crowns points turn downward, the pod may not
yet be fully matured. Not all the plants in a field will be ready for scoring
at the same time. Each pod can be tapped from two to four times.
A
set of three or four small blades of iron, glass, or glass splinters bound tightly
together on a wooden handle is used to score two or three sides of the pod in
a vertical direction. If the blades cut too deep into the wall of the pod, the
opium (latex) will drain into the interior of the pod, rather than to the surface,
where it can be collected. If the incisions are too shallow, the flow will be
too slow and the opium will coagulate over the incisions and block the flow.
A depth of about 1 millimeter is desired for the incision. Using a blade-tool
designed to cut to that depth, scoring ideally starts in late afternoon so the
white latex-like raw opium, which has a 60 percent water content, can ooze out
and slowly dry on the surface of the pod overnight. If the scoring begins too
early in the afternoon, the sun will cause the opium to dry and block the flow.
The opium oxidizes, darkens, and thickens in the cool night air. Early the next
morning, the sticky opium gum is scraped from the surface of the pods with a
short-handled, crescent-shaped, flat, iron blade 3 to 4 inches wide. The opium
gum is collected in a container which hangs from the farmers neck or waist.
Opium harvesters work their way backwards across the field to minimize brushing
up against scored (wet) pods, so as not to spill the sticky ooze inadvertently.
The lower, mature pods are usually scored before the taller pods. The pods will
continue to secrete opium for several days. Farmers will return to these plantssometimes
up to three or four timesto gather additional opium until the gum content
is depleted totally.
In
Mainland Southeast Asia, the opium yield from a single pod varies greatly, ranging
from 10 to 100 milligrams of opium gum per pod. (Opium gum yield per capsule
correlates very closely with capsule volume.) The average yield of raw opium
gum per pod is about 80 milligrams. The dried opium yield ranges between 8 and
20 kilograms per hectare in this region.
As the farmers gather the opium, the larger or more productive pods are sometimes
tagged with colored string or yarn. These pods will later be cut from their
stems, cut open, dried in the sun and their seeds will be used for the following
years planting. An acre of poppy will produce at least 20 kilograms of
seed, but only a portion is collected for future planting.
The
wet opium gum collected from the pods contains a relatively high amount
of water and needs to be dried for several days. High-quality raw opium
will be brown (rather than black) in color and will retain its sticky
texture. It will contain no more than 15 percent water. Experienced opium
traders can determine quickly if the opium has been mixed with tree sap,
sand, or other such materials.
Raw opium in Burma, Laos, and Thailand is usually sun-dried, weighed in a standard
1.6-kilogram quantity (called a viss in Burma; a choi in Laos
and Thailand), wrapped in a banana leaf or plastic, and then stored until ready
to sell, trade, or smoke. Some opium smoking is common among many adult opium
poppy farmers to ward off hunger and cold. Heavy addiction generally is limited
to older, male farmers and is used as an analgesic for chronic pain. Based on
studies in Thailand, the average yearly consumption of cooked opium per smoker
is estimated to be 1.6 kilograms.
A typical opium poppy farmer household in Southeast Asia will collect 2 to
5 choi or viss (3 to 9 kilograms) of opium from a years
harvest of a one-acre field, although yields can vary widely due to a number
of variables, such as weather and less than ideal field selection. That opium
will be dried, wrapped, and placed on a shelf by February or March. If the opium
has been properly dried, it can be stored indefinitely. Excessive moisture and
heat can cause the opium to deteriorate slightly but, once dried, opium is relatively
stable. In fact, as opium dries and becomes less pliable, its value increases,
due to the decrease in water weight per kilogram.
Cooking
Opium
![Photograph of cooking opium](/peth04/20041017122022im_/http://www.dea.gov/pubs/intel/20026/page10.jpg)
|
Raw
opium is placed in boiling water and cooked in large cooking vats or 55-gallon
drums. After a short time, the opium alkaloids dissolve. The solution is
then strained through cheesecloth to remove impurities such as twigs and
plant scrapings. Then the liquid is reheated until the water has evaporated
and a thick paste remains. |
Before opium is smoked, it is usually cooked. Uncooked opium contains moisture,
vegetable matter, and other impurities which detract from a smooth-smoking product.
The raw opium which is collected from the pod is placed in an open pot of boiling
water where the sticky glob of opium alkaloids quickly dissolves. The soil, twigs,
and plant scrapings remain undissolved. The solution is strained through cheesecloth
to remove these impurities. The clear brown liquid, sometimes called liquid
opium, is actually opium in solution. This liquid then is reheated over
a low flame until the water turns to steam. When the water has evaporated, a thick
paste remains. This paste is called prepared opium, cooked opium,
or smoking opium and it is dried in the sun until it has a putty-like
consistency. The net weight of the cooked opium is generally about 20 percent
less than than the original raw opium.
Cooked opium is suitable for smoking or eating by opium users. Traditionally,
there is only one group of opium poppy farmers, the Hmong, who often do not
cook their opium before smoking. Most other ethnic groups, including Chinese
opium addicts, prefer smoking cooked opium.
Opium, either raw or cooked, will not degrade, or otherwise spoil, for an indefinite
period of time, as long as it remains relatively dry and cool. These are the
normal conditions in the highlands of Mainland Southeast Asia. There are cases
of opium being stored on a shelf for 10 years without deterioration.
If the opium is to be sold to traders for use in morphine or heroin laboratories,
it is not necessary to cook it first. The laboratory operators generally use
55-gallon oil drums or huge cooking vats to cook the raw opium in water before
beginning the morphine extraction process.
|
EXTRACTION
OF MORPHINE FROM OPIUM |
Raw or cooked opium contains more than 35 different alkaloids, including morphine,
codeine, and thebaine. In Mainland Southeast Asia, the morphine alkaloid alone
accounts for approximately 10 percent of the total weight of opium. Heroin manufacturers
must first extract the morphine from the opium, before converting the morphine
to heroin. The extraction is a simple process, requiring only a few chemicals
and a supply of water. Morphine sometimes is extracted from opium in small clandestine
laboratories, which are typically set up near the opium poppy fields. Since
the morphine base is about one-tenth the weight and volume of raw opium, it
is desirable to reduce the opium to morphine before transporting the product
from the field to a heroin laboratory.
The process of extracting morphine from opium involves dissolving opium in
boiling water, adding lime (calcium oxide), or slaked lime (calcium hydroxide),
or limestone (calcium carbonate) to precipitate non-morphine alkaloids, and
then pouring off the morphine in solution. Ammonium chloride is then added to
the solution to precipitate morphine from the solution. The chemicals used to
process opium to morphine have a number of legitimate purposes and are widely
available on the open market. An empty oil drum, some cooking pots, and filter
cloths or filter paper are needed.
The following is a step-by-step
description of morphine extraction in a typical Mainland Southeast Asian
laboratory
An empty 55-gallon oil drum is placed on bricks about a foot above the
ground and a fire is built under the drum. Thirty gallons of water are
added to the drum and brought to a boil. Ten to 15 kilograms of raw opium
are added to the boiling water.
With stirring, the raw opium eventually dissolves in the boiling water,
while soil, leaves, twigs, and other non-soluble materials float in the
solution. Most of these materials are scooped out of the clear, dark brown
liquid opium solution.
Slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) or, more often, a readily available
chemical fertilizer with a high content of lime, is added to the solution.
Lime will convert water- insoluble morphine alkaloid into water-soluble
calcium morphenate. (Other opium alkaloids do not react with lime to form
water-soluble calcium salts, as does morphine.) Codeine is an opium alkaloid
that is slightly water-soluble and some codeine will be carried over with
the calcium morphenate in the liquid. Otherwise, for the most part, the
other alkaloids will become a part of the sludge.
As the solution cools, the morphine solution is scooped from the drum
and poured through a filter. Cloth rice sacks are often used as filters
and can then be squeezed in a press to remove most of the solution from
the wet sacks. Liquid saponated cresol (lysol) is commonly
added to the solution to facilitate filtering. The morphine-rich solution
is then poured into large cooking pots and reheated but, this time, not
boiled.
Ammonium chloride (a powder) is added to the heated calcium morphenate
solution to adjust the alkalinity to a pH of 8 to 9, and the solution
is then allowed to cool. Within 1 or 2 hours, morphine base precipitates
(crashes) out of the solution and settles to the bottom of
the cooking pot.
The solution is then poured off through cloth filters. Any solid morphine
base chunks in the solution will remain on the cloth. The morphine base
is removed from both the cooking pot and from the filter cloths, wrapped
and squeezed in cloth, and then dried in the sun. When dry, the crude
morphine base is a coffee-colored coarse powder. This form of morphine
is commonly known by the Chinese term pi-tzu in Mainland Southeast
Asia.
If morphine base is to be stored or transported to another location,
it may be pressed into blocks. Crude morphine base is generally 50 percent
to 70 percent morphine, and is an intermediate product in the heroin process.
(This morphine base is generally not used by addicts.)
This crude morphine base may be further purified (and changed to morphine
hydrochloride) by dissolution in hot water and hydrochloric acid, then
adding activated charcoal, reheating, and filtering. The solution is filtered
several times before being allowed to cool. As the solution cools, morphine
hydrochloride precipitates out of the solution and settles to the bottom.
The precipitate is trapped (or captured) by filtration.
If the morphine hydrochloride is to be stored or transported to another
location, it may be pressed into bricks. Morphine hydrochloride (often
tainted with codeine hydrochloride) is usually pressed into brick-sized
blocks in a press and wrapped in paper or cloth. The most common block
size is 2 inches by 4 inches by 5 inches, and weighs about 3 pounds (1.3
kilograms). It takes a full day to extract morphine from opium.
|
![Prepared (cooked) opium prior to the morphine extraction stage](/peth04/20041017122022im_/http://www.dea.gov/pubs/intel/20026/page12.jpg)
MORPHINE
EXTRACTION PROCESS
Ten
kilograms of opium are added to 30 gallons of hot water and dissolved.
Solid
impurities are scooped off.
Non-morphine
alkaloids of opium precipitate to the bottom of the barrel.
Morphine
solution is scooped into other containers.
|
Approximately 13 kilograms of opium (from approximately one hectare of opium
poppies) are needed to produce each morphine block of this size. The morphine
blocks are then bundled and packed for transport to heroin laboratories by human
couriers or by pack animals. Pack mules are able to carry 100-kilogram payloads
over 200 miles of rugged mountain trails in less than three weeks.
|
CONVERSION
OF MORPHINE TO HEROIN BASE |
The conversion of morphine to heroin base is a relatively simple and inexpensive
procedure. The necessary chemicals for conversion to heroin are commonly available
as industrial chemicals. The equipment is very basic and quite portable. Heroin
conversion laboratories are generally located in isolated, rural areas due to
the telltale odors of the laboratorys chemicals. Acetic anhydride, in
particular, is a key chemical with a very pungent odor resembling vinegar. Thai-speakers
in the Golden Triangle Area commonly refer to acetic anhydride as nam-som
(vinegar).
As described in the preceding paragraphs, the chemicals used to isolate morphine
from opium (known as extraction) include calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) and
ammonium chloride. The precursor chemical normally used in the conversion of
morphine to heroin (known as acetylation) is acetic anhydride. Chemical reagents
used in the conversion process include sodium carbonate and activated charcoal.
Chemical solvents needed are chloroform, ethyl alcohol (ethanol), and ethyl
ether. Other chemicals may be substituted for these preferred chemicals, but
most or all of these preferred chemicals are readily available from smugglers
and suppliers.
Laboratory equipment includes large Chinese cooking woks, measuring cups, funnels,
filter paper, litmus paper, and enamel (or stainless steel) pots. Only the most
sophisticated heroin laboratories use glass flasks, propane gas ovens, vacuum
pumps, autoclaves, electric blenders, venting hoods, centrifuges, reflux condensers,
electric drying ovens, and elaborate exhaust systems. It is common to find portable,
gasoline-powered generators at clandestine heroin conversion laboratories. Generators
are used to power various electrical devices.
Heroin synthesis from morphine (either morphine base or morphine hydrochloride)
is a two-step process that requires between 4 and 6 hours to complete. Heroin
base is the intermediate product. Typically, morphine hydrochloride bricks are
pulverized and the dried powder is then placed in an enamel pot. Acetic anhydride
is added, which then reacts with the morphine to form heroin acetate. (This
acetylation process will work either with morphine hydrochloride or morphine
base.) The pot lid is tied or clamped on, using a damp towel for a gasket. The
pot is carefully heated for about 2 hours, below boiling, at a constant temperature
of 85° Celsius (185° Fahrenheit). It is never allowed to boil or to
become so hot as to vent fumes into the room. The mixture is agitated by tilting
and rotation until all of the morphine has dissolved. When cooking is completed,
the pot is cooled and opened. During this step, morphine and the anhydride become
chemically bonded, creating an impure form of diacetylmorphine (heroin).
Water is added to the thick, soupy mixture and the mixture is stirred as the
heroin dissolves in the solution. Sodium carbonate (a crystalline powder) is
dissolved in hot water and then added slowly to the heroin solution until effervescence
stops. This precipitates heroin base, which is then filtered and dried by heating
in a steam bath. For each kilogram of morphine, 685 grams to 937 grams of crude
heroin base is formed, depending on the quanity of morphine.
The tan-colored heroin base (about 70 percent pure heroin) may be dried, packed,
and transported to a heroin-refining laboratory, or it may be purified further
before conversion to heroin hydrochloride (a water-soluble salt form of heroin)
at the same site.
Mainland Southeast Asian heroin base is an intermediate product that can be
further converted to either smoking heroin (heroin no. 3) or injectable
heroin (heroin no. 4).
|
CONVERSION
OF HEROIN BASE TO HEROIN NO. 3 |
![Conversion process of Southeast Asian heroin no. 3](/peth04/20041017122022im_/http://www.dea.gov/pubs/intel/20026/page14a.gif) HEROIN
NO. 3 (SMOKING HEROIN)
To make heroin no. 3, the crude base is mixed with hydrochloric acid, resulting
in heroin hydrochloride (HCl). Adulterants, including caffeine, are added after
this conversion. For each kilogram of crude heroin base, about one kilogram
of caffeine is used. Various flavorings such as quinine hydrochloride
or strychnine hydrochloride are sometimes added to heroin no. 3. Next, the wet
paste mix is stirred to dryness over a steam bath.
The resulting dry heroin no. 3 will be in the form of coarse lumps. The lumps
are crushed and passed through a mesh sieve, and the grains (pieces) are then
packaged for sale.
The entire process takes about 8 hours and requires only minimal skill. While
extra attention to stirring is required to assure dryness, one person can prepare
1-kilogram of heroin no. 3 during this time.
![](/peth04/20041017122022im_/http://www.dea.gov/pubs/intel/20026/page14b.gif)
|
CONVERSION
OF HEROIN BASE TO HEROIN NO. 4 |
HEROIN NO. 4 (INJECTABLE HEROIN)
The
reaction of morphine with acetic anhydride produces heroin acetate. To the heroin
acetate mixture in the pot, water is added and mixed by stirring. A small amount
of chloroform is added. The mixture is stirred and then allowed to stand for
20 minutes. Doing so dissolves highly colored impurities and a red, greasy liquid
is formed at the bottom of the container. The water layer is carefully poured
off and saved in a clean pot, leaving the red grease in the pot.
In a clean pot, activated charcoal is stirred into the aqueous solution and
is filtered to remove solid impurities. The decolorizing effects of the charcoal,
combined with the chloroform treatment, will leave a light yellow solution.
The use of charcoal is repeated one or more times, until the solution is colorless.
Sodium carbonate (a crystalline powder) is dissolved in hot water and then
added slowly to the heroin solution until effervescence stops. This precipitates
the heroin base, which is then filtered and dried by heating on a steam bath.
The heroin base is heated until dried. The powder should be very white at this
stage. If not white, the base is redissolved in diluted acid, treated repeatedly
with activated charcoal, re-precipitated, and dried. The ultimate purity and
color of the resulting heroin HCl will depend largely on the quality of the
heroin base.
The heroin base is then dissolved in ethyl ether. Conversion to the hydrochloride
salt is achieved by adding hydrochloric acid in ethanol to the heroin mixture.
The heroin then precipitates.
Heroin
(quantities trafficked)
|
|
Metric
System
|
U.S.
Equivalent
|
gram
(gm.) |
0.001 kgs |
.002 ozs |
unit |
0.700
kgs |
1.54
lbs |
kilogram
(kg.) |
1,000.0
gms |
2.2046
lbs |
ounce
(oz.) |
28.35
gms |
0.0625
lbs |
pound
(lb.) |
453.59
gms |
16.0 ozs |
The mixture becomes nearly solid after an hour. At this point, it is filtered
and the solids are collected on clean filter paper. Batches of between 5 and
10 kilograms (occasionally as much as 20 kilograms) are commonly made at one
time. The paper is wrapped around the crystals and placed on wooden trays, usually
over lime rock, to dry.
When the white crystals of pure heroin HCl are dry, the powder is compressed
into bricks in a hydraulic heroin press. These machine-compressed bricks, often
bear a 999 logo impression on one side. Mainland Southeast Asian
heroin bricks are not adulterated with any type of substance. This high-purity,
odorless heroin, ranges from 85 to 95 percent purity. The standard-sized bricks,
called units (700-gram) or half-units (350 grams), are
then placed in plastic bags and heat-sealed, ready for sale to heroin brokers
and wholesalers. Each full unit measures 5½-inches long, 4-inches wide,
and 2-inches deep. A standard briefcase, measuring 14 inches by 20 inches, and
5 inches deep, can easily hold 18 units (12.6 kilograms) of Mainland Southeast
Asian heroin, stacked in two layers. A standard 1.8 cubic foot microwave oven
can hold approximately 42 units (29.4 kilograms) of Mainland Southeast Asian
heroin.
Although highly soluble in water, heroin HCl is very stable, and can be stored
in a relatively cool, dry, and dark area for an indefinite period of time.
The
Golden Triangle Area of Mainland Southeast Asia is ideally suited for the cultivation
of opium poppy. Although the poppy plant will grow remarkably well in this climate,
soil, and humidity with little to no effort, farmers in this region, nonetheless,
expend a considerable amount of time and effort caring for their crop. Poppy
farmers typically spend 6 months of the year in their poppy fields, nurturing
and safeguarding their familys primary cash crop. In contrast, the synthesis
of heroin from opium takes only a day or two. But heroin chemists or, more precisely,
heroin cooks, in Mainland Southeast Asia must possess a higher level
of knowledge and skills than the poppy farmers who produce the opium. In addition,
the owners and operators of such heroin laboratories must provide an elaborate
support system of cash, armed protection, chemicals, equipment, transportation,
and access to reliable wholesale heroin buyers.
acetic acid, glacial
- Also known as ethanoic acid or vinegar acid. Glacial acetic acid is the
pure compound, as distinguished from the usual water solutions known as acetic
acid. A clear, colorless liquid with a pungent odor. Miscible with water,
alcohol, glycerin, and ether. Highly concentrated, produces burns on the skin.
Chronic exposure may cause erosion of dental enamel, bronchitis, eye irritation.
Excellent solvent for many organic compounds. Widely used in commercial organic
synthesis. Normally contained in 5-pound bottles (corrosive liquid). In illicit
heroin production, can be used in place of ammonium chloride or ammonia solutions
as a reagent to adjust alkalinity in the precipitation of morphine from an
opium solution.
-
- acetic anhydride
- Also known as acetic oxide; acetyl oxide. A colorless liquid with a strong,
vinegar-like odor. Fumes in moist air, and its vapor is extremely irritating
to eyes, nose, and throat. Not readily miscible with water, forming a separate
layer on the bottom, but will form acetic acid eventually . Soluble in chloroform
or ether. Readily combustible (fire hazard). Normally contained in various
sizes of glass or plastic bottles, 5-gallon glass carboys, and 55-gallon metal
drums lined with stainless steel or polyethylene. Used in the textile, leather
tanning, pharmaceutical (particularly aspirin), and photography industries.
Under strict government regulation in some countries. Manufactured in the
United States, Western Europe, and Japan. In illicit heroin production, acetic
anhydride is the most commonly used acetylating agent in the acetylation of
morphine. A key precursor chemical and reagent in heroin synthesis.
-
- acetylation
- The key chemical process in converting morphine base to heroin. Can be accomplished
using either acetyl chloride or acetic anhydride. Acetyl chloride is flammable,
irritating to the eyes, reacts violently with water or alcohol, and requires
careful handling in laboratory processes. For these reasons, processors of
heroin do not favor acetylation using acetyl chloride. Although acetic anhydride
is corrosive and requires care in handling, it is less hazardous to the user
than acetyl chloride and hence is the key chemical used in processing of heroin.
-
- adulterant
- Substance added to heroin after the heroin conversion process is completed.
Adulterants are pharmacologically active. Quinine and procaine are typical
adulterants added to heroin.
-
- alcohol (ethyl alcohol)
- An anhydrous alcohol, also known as ethanol, grain alcohol, fermentation
alcohol, drinking alcohol, anhydrous alcohol, ethyl hydroxide,
and methyl carbinol. A clear, colorless, volatile, flammable liquid with a
pleasant, sweet odor. Absorbs water rapidly from air. Miscible with water.
Must be stored in tightly closed container, cool, and away from flame. Most
ethyl alcohol is used in alcoholic beverages in suitable dilutions. Shipped
in metal or plastic containers, such as 55-gallon drums, gerry cans, etc.
Some drums may be lined with phenolic resin. In illicit heroin production,
used as a solvent during purification of heroin base and in the conversion
of heroin base to heroin hydrochloride.
-
- alkaloid
- Any of various physiologically active, nitrogen-containing organic bases
derived from plants. Common alkaloids include atropine, caffeine, cocaine,
codeine, mescaline, morphine, narcotine, nicotine, noscapine, papaverine,
quinine, strychnine, and thebaine.
-
- ammonium chloride
- Also known as ammonium muriate, sal ammoniac, salmiac. Colorless, odorless
crystals or crystalline chunks; may also be a white, granular powder. Tendency
to cake. Soluble in ethanol; near-insoluble in acetone or ether. Cooling,
saline taste. Major industrial uses are in manufacture of dry cell batteries;
dyes; fertilizers; washing powders; etc. Medical use as an expectorant. Normally
packaged in barrels or multiwall paper or polyethylene sacks. In illicit heroin
production, ammonium chloride can be used as a reagent to adjust alkalinity
in the precipitation of morphine (as crude morphine base) from an opium solution.
-
- brown sugar heroin
- A common name for heroin (any source) which has the appearance of light
brown, granulated sugar. Commonly produced in Southwest Asia (Afghanistan,
Pakistan, and Iran). Used in contrast with the white, fluffy powder or crystal
form of heroin, such as Southeast Asian China White heroin. Like
white heroin, brown sugar heroin may be injected, snorted, or smoked.
-
- caffeine
- White masses of long crystals. A bitter, white alkaloid found in coffee,
tea, and cola nuts. Caffeine is generally used in combined forms, such as
caffeine monohydrate, caffeine acetate, or other compounds. In addition to
its use as a stimulant and diuretic, crystalline caffeine is commonly used
as an diluent in heroin hydrochloride, or as a necessary ingredient in smoking
heroin (e.g., Southeast Asian heroin no. 3). Also used as a preferred
diluent in Southeast Asian methamphetamine tablets.
-
- calcium hydroxide See lime, slaked.
-
- carbon, activated See charcoal, activated.
-
- chandu
- A Hindi-Bengali term for cooked opium (smoking opium). Term
used in India and some parts of Burma. Term used in some historical reports
on Southeast Asian opium.
-
- charcoal, activated
- A fine, black carbonaceous powder prepared commercially from wood and vegetables.
Also known as activated carbon or animal black. Highly
adsorptive. Used in medicine as an antidote and in treatment of diarrhea.
Used in laboratories for clarifying, deodorizing, decolorizing, and filtering
various chemicals. Marketed under trade names as Norit, Carboraffin, Ultracarbon,
Opocarbyl, etc. In illicit heroin production, used as a reagent in the purification
of heroin.
-
- China White
- Southeast Asian heroin no. 4 in white powder form. Term is used by English-speaking
westerners to contrast the white powder form with the light brown, granular
form of heroin (see brown sugar heroin).
May be injected, snorted, or smoked. The term China White also
has been used in recent years as an alternate name for fentanyl, a synthetically-produced
compound with heroin-like properties.
-
- chloroform
- Also known as trichloromethane. A clear, colorless, heavy, and very volatile
liquid with a characteristic sweet odor. It is an irritant to the skin and
eyes and may also be a carcinogenic. Not miscible with water, forming a separate
layer on the bottom. Miscible with alcohol. Shipped in bottles, tins, or drums;
stainless steel for very high-purity products. Used in industry as a solvent
for fats, oils, rubber, alkaloids, waxes, and resins. Used extensively as
a solvent in the rubber industry; used to make the refrigerant Fluorocarbon-22.
In illicit heroin production, it can be used as a solvent in the synthesis
of heroin.
-
- choi (joi)
- A standard unit of weight used in Mainland Southeast Asia for opium (only).
Equivalent to 1.60 kilograms (3.528 pounds).
-
- conversion (heroin conversion)
- A chemical conversion process wherein heroin base is converted into a soluble
salt form of heroin, generally heroin hydrochloride.
-
- diluent
- A chemical diluent is an ingredient used to reduce the concentration of
an active material. Another common definition of diluent is a substance added
to finished product (such as heroin) to increase bulk. In this sense, there
is no clear distinction between a diluent and an extender. In heroin manufacture,
diluents refer to extenders. Typical diluents for heroin are mannitol,
sucrose, lactose, and starch.
-
- ether (ethyl ether)
- Also known as diethyl ether; ethyl oxide; diethyl oxide; sulfuric ether;
anesthetic ether; or simply ether. A colorless, mobile, very volatile and
highly flammable liquid. Characteristic, sweetish, pungent odor, more agreeable
than chloroform. Ether vapors are heavier than air. Tends to form explosive
peroxides under the influence of the air and light. When shaken under absolutely
dry conditions, ether can generate enough static electricity to start a fire.
Shipped in cans, drums, barrels, and tank cars. Not miscible with water, forming
a separate layer on the surface. In addition to its well-known use as an anesthetic,
ether is used as a solvent in fats, waxes, dyes, perfumes, oils, resins, etc.
In illicit heroin production, ether is used as a solvent in the conversion
of heroin base to heroin hydrochloride.
-
- ethyl alcohol See alcohol.
-
- ethyl ether See ether.
-
- Golden Triangle
- Area of Mainland Southeast Asia comprising the Shan Plateau and Kachin Hills
of northeastern Burma, the highlands of northwestern Laos, and the highlands
of northern Thailand. Term was popularized by Western journalists in the 1970s
to designate one of the principal source areas in the world for illicit opium
and its derivatives, morphine and heroin. The regions poppy cultivation
area also includes northern Vietnam and the adjacent areas of southern China.
-
- gram
- A standard unit of weight in the metric system equal to one-thousandth of
a kilogram. 28.350 grams equal one ounce.
-
- hai
- Northern Thai-Shan term used with land areas. See rai
and lai (Lao).
-
- hectare
- A metric unit of area equal to 2.471 acres (10,000 square meters). Also
equivalent to 6.25 rai.
-
- heroin
- Also known as diacetylmorphine. A highly addictive synthetic narcotic derived
from morphine.
-
- heroin base (Southeast Asia)
- Diacetylmorphine. Also known as crude heroin. Actually, heroin
base is morphine base that has undergone acetylation. Formed as a precipitate
(solid) by adding soda ash (sodium carbonate) to an acetylated morphine solution.
Sometimes called Southeast Asian heroin no. 2. Not readily soluble in water,
and therefore not injectable in this form. This form of heroin can be smoked.
However, heroin base generally is considered an intermediate form of heroin
that may be further refined to either no. 3 or no. 4 heroin.
-
- heroin hydrochloride
- A chemical salt form of heroin, usually powder or crystal, that is water
soluble and therefore suitable for injection. Sometimes called Southeast Asian
heroin no. 4. Formed when heroin base is treated with hydrochloric acid. This
type of heroin is most commonly used by heroin users who inject the drug.
-
- heroin no. 3
- A smokeable form of Southeast Asian heroin. Not as highly refined as no.
4. Color ranges from purple to tan to off-white. Although considered a smoking
heroin, it may also be injected intravenously. Caffeine is a necessary component
of heroin no. 3. In contrast, strychnine or quinine are adulterants, which
are sometimes added to heroin no. 3, allegedly to modify the taste of the
product.
-
- heroin no. 4
- An injectable form of Southeast Asian heroin. Also known as heroin hydrochloride
or China White. Highly refined heroin produced in Southeast Asia. Usually
a fine white powder, flakes, or crystals. May be smoked or snorted. Diluents,
such as lactose, are not normally added until the heroin is diluted (or cut
or whacked) for street sales.
-
- highlander (Mainland Southeast Asia)
- A hill dweller. Hill tribesmen are a typical example of highlanders in Mainland
Southeast Asia. However, some hill tribesmen have migrated into the lowlands,
and are now permanent dwellers in lowland communities. Conversely, some members
of ethnic groups (such as Yunnanese Chinese , or Haw) who are
generally lowland dwellers have settled permanently in highland areas in Mainland
Southeast Asia.
-
- hill tribe (Mainland Southeast Asia)
- Any one of numerous ethnic groups which share a distinct culture, language,
and social structure and who are regarded, as a group, to be hill dwellers
or montagnards (French). The Hmong (Miao), the Iu Mien (Yao), Lahu
(Musoe), inter alia, are hill tribe groups in Mainland Southeast Asia.
-
- hydrochloric acid
- A solution of hydrogen chloride gas (HCl) in water. Also known as muriatic
acid. Fumes in the air. A colorless liquid (sometimes yellow) with an acrid
odor. Acid is poisonous and corrosive. Shipped in glass bottles or glass carboys,
or rubber-lined steel drums. Used in petroleum production, as a chemical intermediate,
and in ore reduction, food processing, pickling, and metal cleaning. In illicit
heroin production, hydrochloric acid is used to convert morphine base to morphine
hydrochloride (e.g., 999 morphine blocks or bricks) or to convert
heroin base to heroin hydrochloride.
-
- jin
- A metric unit of weight in Chinese system. Equivalent to ½ kilogram
(500 grams). Chinese term, romanized: jin (Pinyin) or chin (Wade-Giles
Mandarin).
-
- kilogram
- A metric unit of weight equal to 1,000 grams or 2.2046 pounds.
-
- lactose
- Also known as milk sugar, saccharum lactis. Present in milk in mammals.
White, hard crystalline mass or white powder; sweet taste, odorless. Stable
in air. Soluble in water, insoluble in ether and chloroform; very slightly
soluble in alcohol. Used commercially in infant foods, baking and confectionery,
margarine and butter manufacture, etc. Shipped in multiwall paper sacks or
in bulk. Commonly used as a diluent (or extender) by heroin dealers to increase
bulk of injectable heroin (e.g., Southeast Asian heroin no. 4).
-
- lai
- A standard unit of land area measurement in Laos, equivalent to 1,600 square
meters. Corresponds to rai measurement used in Thailand (see below).
-
- lime, slaked
- Also known as calcium hydroxide, calcium hydrate, caustic lime, hydrated
lime. Crystals or soft, odorless, granules or powder, with a slightly bitter
taste. Slightly soluble in water. Readily absorbs carbon dixoide (CO2)
from air, forming calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Used in industry to
manufacture cement, pesticides, fertilizers, and in water treatment. Normally
packaged in tightly closed and dry containers, such as wooden barrels or multiwall
paper sacks. Used as a reagent in the extraction of morphine from opium by
forming an intermediate calcium salt (calcium morphenate).
-
- liter
- A metric unit of volume. Equivalent to 1.056 liquid quarts.
-
- lowlander (Southeast Asia)
- A lowland dweller, in either a rural or urban community. The ethnic Lao
are a typical example of lowlanders in Southeast Asia. However, some Lao have
migrated into the highlands and are now permanent dwellers in highland communities.
Conversely, some members of ethnic groups who are generally highland dwellers
(e.g., the Hmong hill tribe) have moved permanently into lowland areas in
Laos and Thailand.
-
- mannitol
- Also known as mannite, manna sugar. A white, crystalline, sweetish, water-soluble
carbohydrate alcohol. Used as a nutrient, a dietary supplement, and as the
basis of dietetic sweets. Mannitol is used commonly as a mild laxative for
infants. Shipped in multiwall paper sacks or bulk. Commonly used as a diluent
(or extender) by heroin dealers to increase bulk of injectable heroin
(e.g., Southeast Asian heroin no. 4).
-
- morphine
- An organic compound (alkaloid) found in the Papaver somniferum (opium
poppy). Morphine must first be extracted from opium. The soluble salts of
morphine (morphine carbonate, morphine sulfate, morphine hydrochloride, etc.)
are used in human and veterinary medicine as a light anesthetic or as a sedative.
-
- morphine base
- Morphine base is an intermediate product between morphine alkaloid in opium
and a morphine brick (morphine hydrochloride). The base is formed as a precipitate
(solid) when ammonium chloride is added to a solution of calcium morphenate.
This base is usually quite crude (50% to 70% pure) because of the marginal
conditions under which it is prepared. Morphine base is not easily soluble
in water, and thus is not readily absorbed by the human body. Morphine base
must therefore be converted to a (water-soluble) salt form, viz., morphine
hydrochloride or heroin hydrochloride, by treating it with hydrochloric acid.
-
- morphine brick
- Morphine hydrochloride, ranging between 82 and 94 percent morphine content,
compressed (by a morphine press) into a standard-sized brick shape measuring
approximately 2 inches by 4 inches by 5 inches and weighing approximately
1.3 kilograms (about 3 pounds). Also known as a morphine block. Properly compressed
morphine hydrochloride is very dry and hard.
-
- morphine press
- A metal or wood piece of equipment which can squeeze water from morphine
hydrochloride, leaving the morphine dry and in uniform, brick-sized blocks.
-
- morphine salt
- A water-soluble chemical form of morphine. In extracting morphine from opium,
slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) powder is added to opium dissolved in water.
Lime reacts with morphine in opium (morphine content ranges from 9% to 16%
by weight of the opium) to form calcium morphenate in solution. Calcium morphenate
is a chemical salt form of morphine. Other morphine salts include morphine
sulfate, morphine hydrochloride, and morphine acetateall legitimate
compounds used in medicine.
-
- nuai
- A general nonspecific term in Thai-Lao-Shan which means unit.
However, has special meaning when used in reference to heroin. A nuai
is a standard unit of weight for Southeast Asian heroin, equivalent to 700
grams (.7 kilograms) or 1.54 pounds.
-
- opium
- A bitter, yellowish-brown, strongly-addictive naturally-occurring narcotic
derived from the dried latex juice of the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum.
Source of morphine and heroin. Opium poppy is cultivated legally in India,
Turkey, China, Commonwealth of Independent States (formally the Soviet Union),
and Tasmania, Australia; and is cultivated illegally in Afghanistan, Burma,
Colombia, Guatemala, Iran, Laos, Lebanon, Mexico, Pakistan, and Thailand.
-
- opium, liquid
- Also known as opium solution. Refers to opium which has been dissolved in
water, either to prepare the opium for smoking, i.e., cooking
the opium, or as the first step in extracting morphine from the opium. Liquid
opium is usually a clear, dark brown liquid.
-
- opium, prepared
- Also known as cooked opium, processed opium, and smoking opium. Raw opium
is dissolved in hot water in order to remove impurities and vegetable matter.
It is heated to reduce its water content. As the solution cools, the opium
reverts to a solid. Most opium smokers prefer to smoke prepared opium. By
contrast, morphine and heroin laboratory operators can process both cooked
and raw opium.
-
- opium, raw
- Also known as opium gum, crude opium, and opium sap. Opium which has not
been cooked. Often contains plant scraping, leaf pieces, and other
impurities. Initially, is soft and pliable due to high moisture content, but
may be dried to a hard consistency. Has strong odor. Weighs more than prepared
opium (contains more water). It is smoked or eaten by addicts.
-
- pi-tzu
- A Chinese term used to refer to impure, or crude, morphine base. Romanized
spellings of the term include pizi (Pinyin) and pi-tzu
(Wade-Giles Mandarin).
-
- pong
- A standard unit of weight used in Southeast Asia for opium only. Equivalent
to 0.375 kilograms (13.23 ounces). Thai-Shan-Lao term.
-
- poppy (opium poppy)
- An annual plant, Papaver somniferum, having grayish-green leaves
and variously colored flowers. The sole source of opium.
-
- poppy pod
- Sometimes called the seedpod, capsule, bulb, or head. Refers to the egg-sized
fruit which enlarges as the flower petals fall from the plant. The poppy pod
is the mature ovary of the opium poppy plant. The ovarian wall produces the
white latex (opium).
- poppy pod, scoring
- Cutting into the surface of an opium poppy pod, using a sharp bladed instrument,
in order to allow the opium to exude from the pod. Also known as lancing,
incising, or tapping.
-
- poppy pod, scraping
- Using flat-bladed instrument to collect gummy opium from pod surface. The
instrument resembles a paint scraper.
-
- poppy plants, weeding and thinning
- Removing weeds, grasses, and some poppy plants in order to provide more
growing space for remaining poppies.
-
- precipitation (chemical precipitation)
- The separation of a solid from a solution. The resulting solid is called
the precipitate.
-
- precursor
- A precursor is a chemical that is the raw material for a new product. Morphine
is a precursor in the production of heroin.
-
- processing (heroin processing)
- A general term that refers to the overall process of manufacturing heroin.
Includes the acetylation process, a number of intermediate purification and
precipitation processes, and the process of chemically converting heroin base
to a soluble salt form of heroin, generally heroin hydrochloride. Heroin processing
can also include the extraction of morphine from opium, and may include other
operations, such as filtering, drying, pressing, and packaging the finished
heroin product.
-
- purification (chemical purification)
- The removal of extraneous materials (impurities) from a substance or a mixture
by one or more separation techniques. Such techniques include crystallization,
precipitation, distillation, adsorption, extraction, etc. For example, heroin
base is usually treated with decolorizing charcoal (a purification process)
after it is acetylated from morphine base.
-
- rai
- A standard unit of land area measurement in Thailand equivalent to 1,600
square meters. Corresponds to lai measurement used in Laos (see above).
Rai is also a general term in Thai-Lao-Shan for cultivated land (except
irrigated ricefields). Called hai in northern and northeastern Thailand.
Called hai in Laos only when used to refer to cultivated fields.
-
- reagent (chemical reagent)
- A reagent is a chemical which reacts with a precursor to form a new compound.
For example, acetic anhydride is a reagent used in the manufacture of heroin.
-
- slash-and-burn agriculture
- Also known as swidden agriculture. Agricultural method of clearing
land for cultivation. Involves cutting down all the trees and underbrush on
a wooded hillside and, when it is thoroughly dried, burning it off in preparation
for planting. This type of shifting cultivation is used widely by highland
groups in Southeast Asia.
-
- soda ash (sodium carbonate)
- Crude, anhydrous sodium carbonate. Also known as Solvay soda; washing soda;
soda. A white or transparent, odorless, crystalline powder with a salty, bitter
taste. Shipped in 25-pound, 50-pound, and 100-pound bags; 275-pound and 400-pound
drums; or bulk. An industrial chemical used in manufacturing sodium bicarbonate;
sodium nitrate; glass; ceramics; water softening agents; detergents; and soaps.
An alkaline material commonly used in the production of heroin base.
-
- solvent (chemical solvent)
- A solvent does not react chemically with a precursor chemical or reagent
and does not become part of the finished product. Solvents are used to dissolve
solid precursors or reagents, to dilute reaction mixtures, and to separate
and purify other chemicals.
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- swidden agriculture
- An agricultural method. See slash-and-burn agriculture.
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- tua See nuai.
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- unit
- Special meaning when used in reference to heroin. A unit is
a standard unit of weight for Southeast Asian heroin. Called nuai in
Thai and Lao; chien in Chinese. Equivalent to 700 grams (.7 kilogram)
or 1.54 pounds. Approximate dimensions: 5½ inches length, 4 inches
width, 2 inches depth. Derivation of use as standard not known.
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- viss
- A standard unit of weight used in southern India and Burma. Equivalent to
1.657 kilograms (3.652 pounds). Commonly used when weighing meat, flour, rice,
and other such bulk items. In Burma, the viss is also used in the opium
trade. Burmese term: beittha. (The term viss is not used in
Thailand, Laos, or China.) Derived from Tamil term, visai. Also spelled vise
(Telugu) and vis. Often rounded to 1.6 kilograms or 3.6 pounds in modern
usage.
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