Setting a New Course for U.S. Coastal Ocean Science
Phase 1: Inventory of Federal Programs
Return to Table of Contents
The Inventory Matrix
The Matrix
To inventory Federal science programs in the U.S. coastal ocean, a matrix
was developed that relates categories of scientific effort, environmental
regimes of the coastal ocean, and national concerns.
To establish the scope of agency research programs and to identify research
gaps and new approaches, it is first necessary to inventory ongoing efforts
sponsored by the Federal government. In order to develop an inventory, a U.S.
Coastal Ocean Science Inventory Matrix was constructed that relates categories
of scientific effort, environmental regimes of the coastal ocean, and national
concerns. This matrix can be represented by a cube (Figure 3) in which each element
links scientific research to a specific regime and the national concerns.
The national concerns are Environmental Quality, Coastal Habitat Conservation,
Conservation and Use of Living Marine Resources, Utilization of Nonliving
Marine Resources, and Protection of Life and Property. A sixth national
concern, National Defense, was identified during review of this matrix.
For this inventory, the National Defense contributions were incorporated within
the other five national concerns, such as Protection of Life and Property.
For the matrix, the coastal ocean was divided into four regimes: Ocean Margins,
Estuaries, Great Lakes, and Shorelines. Scientific efforts have been categorized
as studies of either physical processes, biogeochemical cycles, or biological
interactions. Scientific efforts covered under each regime are listed in Table
1.
In the previous chapter, the five national concerns were discussed at length.
In this chapter, each of the regimes of the coastal ocean will be defined;
the relevant physical processes, biogeochemical cycles, and biological interactions
described; and a listing of research topics provided. The research topics
were developed from an analysis of ongoing programs and research needs identified
by a survey of more than 40 reports from the National Research Council and
other academic/government studies conducted in recent years to pinpoint specific
research needs for the coastal ocean.
Ocean Margins
Ocean margins are defined by the water, sediment, and overlying atmosphere
associated with the continental and insular margins, extending from the surf
zone to the outer limit of the EEZ. The ocean margins are the most extensive
area of the coastal ocean and the least explored. Primary national concerns
within the ocean margins involve environmental quality and conservation and
use of living resources. Investigations of the relationships among physical
processes, the distribution and movements of marine resources, and the dynamics
of populations and species assemblages have received only modest support even
though this is widely recognized as a high-priority issue. Overfishing, as
a result of inadequate understanding of sustainable yields, has contributed
to profound changes in the community structure and species composition of
large marine ecosystems in the ocean margins. These alterations have been
accompanied by dramatic declines in commercial harvest. There is a need to
determine if these alterations are reversible and to develop strategies and
models which support multispecies or ecosystem-level management. The ability
to understand and manage the water quality and marine resources of this regime
also will be critical to the wise stewardship of this vast area.
Biological interactions, especially as related to fisheries, marine mammals,
and other living marine resources, are a high-priority interest. Improving
quantitative understanding of natural processes controlling fisheries recruitment
and species interactions, acting simultaneously over large areas and both
within and among trophic levels, is critical to improving the predictability
of coastal ecosystems. Physical processes are important not only as potentially
dominant factors in controlling ecosystem dynamics but also in the transport
of biogeochemically important material.
Understanding the factors that control along- and cross-shelf transport
and energy transfer across the air-sea interface is essential. Understanding
ice dynamics in the ocean margin is important for protection of life and property
as well as for national defense and maritime commerce. In arctic areas, ice
dynamics can also significantly influence biogeochemical cycles and ecosystem
dynamics. Biogeochemical cycles of nutrients are essential components of coastal
production with important impacts on both ecosystem dynamics and coastal carbon
flux. Evaluation of the origin and impacts of terrestrial and atmospheric
inputs such as acid rain and other chemical contaminants is necessary to differentiate
between natural and human-induced change throughout the ocean margins. Sediment
dynamics can be an important component of mass loading of biogeochemically
active constituents within ocean margins.
Research Needs. An improved understanding of coastal oceanography
through systematic measurements (long time-series) of key ocean and atmospheric
parameters is fundamental to addressing most issues in the ocean margins.
Such time-series need to combine remote- sensing technology with unmanned
and manned monitoring techniques. Currently, there exist serious information
gaps in terms of the measurement of most basic environmental parameters. The
need for improved measurements of coastal winds is the most widely cited information
gap for this regime and is essential for improved circulation modeling.
Documented research needs include:
Physical Processes
- Higher density observations and predictions of winds at the sea surface
are needed to better understand surface forcings and as input to models.
High- density in-situ measurements of ocean parameters, particularly current
velocity, are needed for model development and skill assessment. (21,22,23)
- Relation of large-scale offshore processes to shelf and coastal processes.
Biological Interactions
- Processes that control recruitment and compensation within marine populations,
particularly commercial stocks. This information is needed to identify critical
bottlenecks in population replenishment and to improve management of fisheries
and marine mammal populations. Also needed are studies of trophic interactions
and a determination of how these interactions may be considered in management
strategies. (24,27)
- Effects of increasing marine mammal populations on fisheries and fish
resources and, conversely, the effects of commercial and recreational fisheries
on the conservation of marine mammals and on their habitat and prey.
- Relation between algal productivity and fisheries resources.
- Relation between harmful algal blooms and excess nutrients. (24,27)
Biogeochemical Cycles
- Atmospheric and air-sea interaction processes that affect biological productivity
and chemical and gas exchange. Study of the transfer of biogenically important
gases and aerosols across the sea surface. (21,25,28)
- Processes coupling the benthic and pelagic zones. Detailed studies of
the time-varying vertical structure of biogenic and inorganic compounds
are necessary for proper interpretation of remote-sensing signals. Focused
studies of the exchange of materials across the sediment-water interface
and the impact of this exchange on the cycling of biogenic elements through
the margin. (21,25,29)
- Assessment of the levels and effects of toxic contamination and development
of the capability to predict the effects of toxins on marine resources.
(24,26)
- Terrestrial input of pollutants and how subsequent circulation influences
the transport of contaminants and biological productivity. (24, 25, 28,
29)
- External and internal processes that supply nutrients and create situations
that enhance organic carbon fixation. (28)
Estuaries
Estuaries are defined by the land, water, sediment, and overlying atmosphere
extending from the upper limit of tidal influence through the mouth of the
estuary to the sea (including any associated buoyant plume) and associated
wetlands. This environmental regime includes such major estuaries as Chesapeake
and San Francisco Bays, extensive fringing systems associated with barrier
islands, and coastal wetlands such as those off Louisiana. These are some
of the most ecologically productive regions and are under great pressure from
human activities. Primary national concerns include coastal habitat conservation
and the conservation and use of living and nonliving coastal resources.
Terrestrial ecosystem processes and biogeochemical cycles dominate control
of important properties of estuarine systems. These cycles mediate input of
point and nonpoint source nutrient and toxic contaminant loads, ultimately
controlling biological productivity, carbon flux, and the biological effects
of toxic contaminants. These cycles both influence and are influenced by biological
interactions, including trophic dynamics and interactions among native and
nonindigenous species. Secondary production, a critical link in overall estuarine
productivity, is often dominated by interactions among animals and their habitats
(wetlands, submerged vegetation, mud flats, etc.). As wildlife and fisheries
habitat, estuaries provide food, shelter, migratory pathways, and nursery
areas for some of the Nation's most valued species. Quantitative and qualitative
understanding of the processes within the estuarine system are essential for
the conservation and protection of these species. Estuarine physical processes,
dominated by tidally influenced circulation and cross-boundary fluxes (e.g.,
ocean-estuarine exchange, wetland flushing, sediment-estuary and land-estuary
exchange), are critical in determining the net load and distribution of nutrients
and toxic contaminants. Sediment dynamics influence the distribution of benthic
contaminants. They are also important processes influencing the capabilities
of defense operations and maritime commerce, much of which is conducted through
ports located in the Nation's estuaries.
Research Needs. It is critical that a database be established defining
the baseline, present-day condition of the Nation's major estuaries. Research
must describe past changes and present processes in estuarine ecosystems to
assess and predict their response to human activities and climatic variability.
This requires a twofold approach. First, coordinated, process-oriented research
is required to predict the effects of human activities and climatic changes
on estuarine environmental quality. An understanding of the transformations
of matter (organic, nutrients, pollutants) within estuaries must be developed.
Second, for effective comparison and analysis, these multidisciplinary process
studies must be coordinated on similar physical scales. (30, 31) Continuation
and expansion of monitoring and assessment is needed to collect and compile
accurate, standardized information in a comprehensive and accessible national
data base. Monitoring will facilitate the recognition of environmental trends,
evaluation of habitat quality, and the timely detection of habitat damage
or loss. (32, 33)
Documented research needs include:
Physical Processes
- Quantification of water mass and sediment exchanges between the estuary
and the coastal ocean. Detailed studies of nontidal circulation, vertical
mixing, and suspended sediment transport; development and testing of methods
for remote detection of agents modifying water quality over large areas;
the development and testing of circulation models; the physical effects
of storms and floods; studies of long-term changes in freshwater inputs
and their relationship to processes in the catchment areas. (23,24)
Biological Interactions
- Detailed spatial and temporal surveys of living resources. This includes
the need for an accelerated mapping effort of associated wetland habitats.
(32, 33)
- Evaluation of the status of estuarine habitat quantity and quality; determination
of the mechanisms by which these habitats support living marine resources;
determination of the effects of habitat loss or modification on marine organisms.
(35,36)
- Dynamics of the different estuarine habitats (including wetlands) and
the interactions and exchanges among them. (37)
- Trophic interactions among microbial, phytoplankton, zooplankton, and
higher predator communities. (30)
- Development, adjustment, and testing of ecosystem models for trend analysis
and prediction. (30)
- Development of remote-sensing techniques for prompt assessment of impacts
and input to models.
- Genetic variability of living resource stocks and the potential for genetic
engineering as a means of restoring threatened stocks. (34)
- Role of pathogens and nuisance species in altering resource populations
and the quality of estuarine habitats. (35)
- Indicator species as a method of environmental diagnostics. (35)
Biogeochemical Cycles
- Long-term measurements to document changes in inputs of freshwater, nutrients,
organic matter, sediments, pollutants. These must include both point and
nonpoint sources. (30, 35)
- Surface water hydrology, the biogeochemistry of sediments, and the physical
and biochemical transports of matter to and from the coastal ocean and atmosphere.
(30)
- Watershed processes, specifically the transport and cycling of particulate
and dissolved materials; the influence of land use; processes in riparian
zones. (34)
- Biogeochemical processes controlling nutrient remineralization and burial.
(30
- Sublethal and chronic effects of toxic compounds and their biochemically
modified byproducts on the estuary ecosystems. (30)
Great Lakes
The five Great Lakes are essentially inland seas that include the lake waters,
associated embayments, and wetlands. The Great Lakes are included in the coastal
ocean research classification because they share many of the processes and
problems of the coastal ocean. Primary national concerns include environmental
quality and habitat conservation.
Advancing the quantitative understanding of large-lake ecosystem dynamics,
including species interactions, trophic dynamics, and habitat processes, is
an essential element in rectifying fisheries problems and in preventing or
mediating the impact of nonindigneous species introductions. Biogeochemical
cycles tend to control the ultimate fate of nutrient-enhanced carbon production
(supporting fisheries and potentially leading to eutrophication) as well as
the biological effects of toxic contaminants in both the water column and
sediments. Evaluation of the origin and impacts of terrestrial and atmospheric
inputs such as acid rain and other chemical contaminants is necessary to differentiate
between natural and human-induced change throughout the Great Lakes ecosystem.
The ability to predict hazards such as deep- and shallow-water waves, wind
forcing at the air-water interface, and storm-induced or ice jam flooding
is critical. A second set of hazards are those related to fluctuation in lake
levels. These processes tend to operate on longer time scales and include
sediment erosion and accretion and overall basin water balances. A suite of
physical processes underlie the dynamics of ecosystems, biogeochemical cycles,
and hazards. Those requiring particular attention are nearshore hydrodynamics,
especially processes controlling the transport of materials to and from the
shores and their interaction with general circulation processes. Large lakes
in northern latitudes form considerable ice in winter. Ice processes, in addition
to affecting boating and shipping, can dramatically alter shorelines, cause
flooding and in some cases, contribute significantly to biogeochemical cycles
and ecosystem dynamics.
Research Needs. Research must provide the information needed to restore
and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Great
Lakes ecosystem. The research should be organized around an ecosystem framework
with a balanced approach to short- and long-term research. Habitat protection
and restoration activities must proceed in highly impacted areas as soon as
possible. There is an immediate need to link existing models of hydrodynamics,
toxic transport and fate, eutrophication, and food-chain and fisheries dynamics.
The long-term need is to improve those models with emphasis on specific resource
management problems and sites.
Physical Processes
- Surface water, basin hydrology, inshore/offshore movement of water and
sediments; and their relationship to living resources and environmental
quality.
- Improved circulation models and coupled atmosphere-lake models.
Biological Interactions
- Structure and function of biological communities; incorporate biological
interactions and linkages into whole ecosystem models.
- Devise strategies to prevent the introduction of nonindigenous species;
lessen the impact of those already established.
- Habitat mapping; standardization of classification of physical habitats;
standardization of inventory and information management to improve reporting
of habitat loss and causes of loss.
- Criteria for ranking and identifying critical habitat.
- Habitat creation and rehabilitation.
- Impact of land use; environmental stress.
Biogeochemical Cycles
- Locating and quantifying point and nonpoint sources of toxic materials
and pollutants (groundwater, urban and rural runoff, lake sediments, and
atmospheric inputs). Understanding the processes that control the release
of in-place contaminants. (38)
- Characterize the spatial and temporal variability of atmospheric input
of airborne toxicants.
- Field measurements and instrumentation and source attribution methods.
- Integrated air/water mass balance models; linking geographic information
system and databases with mass balance models for specific locations.
- Toxic materials transport models coupled with physical, chemical, and
biological models.
- Sediment/water exchange and transformation processes; develop partition
and speciation models for heavy metals.
Shorelines
Shorelines along both U.S. marine and the Great Lakes coasts are dynamic
zones extending roughly from 5 meters above mean high water to the 10-meter
depth contour. Although estuaries contain shorelines, the issues and relevant
dynamics associated with those areas are distinctly different from the shorelines
typical of exposed coasts. Therefore, shorelines in the present context are
primarily those associated with the open coasts. The critical national concern
for shorelines is protection of life and property.
Although shorelines represent the regime with the smallest areal extent,
this regime is important because of the proximity of densely populated, growing
urban centers that are subject to catastrophic damage from winds and flooding
due to storms and tsunamis. Coastal developments are also jeopardized by the
continuous alteration of the shoreline due to natural processes such as sea
level rise, erosion, and accretion. Shoreline areas are also important for
recreational values.
At shorelines on the open ocean coast, physical processes dominate and the
coastal hazards that threaten life and property are most seriously realized.
A quantitative understanding of processes controlling the impacts of winds,
waves, and flooding from coastal storms is needed to advance the forecasting
of such events. Similar advances are needed for inundation events caused by
tsunamis. The ability to predict impacts of long-term changes in water level
dynamics will require efforts to understand and model sediment erosion/accretion,
land subsidence, and sea-level rise processes. In northern latitudes, ice
processes influence the safety of defense operations and maritime commerce.
Additionally, almost nothing is known about offshore fault systems adjacent
to the coast and their capability to generate tsunamis. Although their occurrence
in the U.S. is not as frequent as storm-related disasters, earthquakes such
as those recently in northern California indicate the capability of coastal
quakes to produce significant damage. Shorelines are also the focus of impacts
of pollutants and where such impacts are immediately most obvious.
Research Needs. The research required is primarily oriented toward
physical processes. The analysis of storm processes critical to understanding
shoreline processes also is relevant to the other regimes. Storms are a primary
high-energy/stress phenomena for many ecosystems and are often an agent of
catastrophic change.
Documented research needs include:
Physical Processes
- High-density observations and models for winds over variable terrains,
particularly at the shoreline transition; accurate predictions of winds
in the region onshore and offshore of the shoreline needed to forecast potential
damages to structures and as input to models of surge and waves in the near-
coastal regions. (21,22,39,40)
- Observations and models for the interaction of large-scale meteorological
systems with the coast; research on severe storms. (22,29)
- Storm-surge models including flooding effects; effects of waves propagating
over flooded land; and storm-induced dune erosion. (24)
- Nearshore fluid processes including infragravity waves, swash dynamics,
wave breaking, and turbulence. (41,42,43)
- Boundary-layer processes; turbulence; and small-scale sediment transport.
(41, 42)
- Observational data base on wave and water level conditions. (42)
- Cost-effective measurement systems and a national monitoring system. (42)
- Generation of tsunamis and tsunami-induced flooding. (24)
- Connection between the nearshore zone and other aspects of cross-shore
sediment transport. (40,44,45)
- Coastal erosion processes and the effects of sea-level change. (46,47)
- Effects of storm events on coastal land forms and wetland environments.
(43, 47)
- National assessment of long-term changes in relative sea level.(43, 46,
47)
Return to Table of Contents
Go to Next Section: Inventory of Federal Programs
