Related Resources:
Commodore George Dewey achieved a
crushing naval victory over the Spanish fleet in the waters west
of the city of Manila in the Philippines on 1 May 1898 during
the Spanish-American War (21 April to 13 August 1898). Although
the operation had long been a part of the U.S. Navy's strategic
plans in the event of a conflict with Spain, no one, even at the
start of the war could foresee the impact Dewey's success would
have on the future of the United States.
Beginning in 1894 the Naval War College (and later special boards
convened by the Secretary of the Navy) examined the possibility
of war with Spain over trouble in Cuba. An attack by the U.S.
Asiatic Squadron against the Spanish forces in the Philippines
first became a part of the Navy's plans in 1896. The objective
of the offensive operation was not to conquer all or part of the
Spanish colony, but to tie down or divert enemy ships and give
the United States' a stronger bargaining position at the peace
settlement. Nevertheless, the consequences of Dewey's triumph
were much different.
Assistant Secretary Roosevelt telegraphed Commodore George Dewey
on 25 February ordering him to concentrate the ships of the Asiatic
Station at Hong Kong. In the event of war he was to take his squadron
and destroy the Spanish ships in Philippine waters. Dewey's command
at Hong Kong consisted of the protected cruisers Olympia,
Boston, and Raleigh, and the gunboats Concord
and Petrel. The Revenue Cutter McCulloch joined
the force on 17 April, and the protected cruiser Baltimore
arrived on 22 April. Dewey also prepared for future operations
in a region without friendly bases by purchasing the British steamers
Nanshan and Zafiro to carry coal and supplies for
his squadron.
In a meeting called by the governor general of the Philippines
on 15 March, Rear Admiral Patricio Montojo y Pasaron, in command
of Spanish naval forces in the colony, expressed his opinion that
his squadron would be destroyed by the onslaught of the ships
of Dewey's squadron. The Spanish naval force consisted of seven
unarmored ships carrying thirty-seven heavy guns and weighing
a total of 11,328 tons. Montojo's largest ship was made of wood.
Dewey's force that eventually engaged the Spanish squadron was
much stronger, consisting of six steel vessels mounting fifty-three
guns and displacing 19,098 tons. Four of these had armored decks.
Montojo recommended fortifying the entrances to Subic Bay, northwest
of Manila, and moving his ships there to await Dewey's attack.
If the Americans bypassed Subic and anchored in Manila Bay, it
was thought, Montojo could sneak up on them during the night and
inflict some damage. The governor general agreed. However, Montojo
did not track the progress of the work in Subic Bay.
Secretary Long telegraphed Commodore Dewey at Hong Kong on 21
April informing him that the U.S. blockade of Cuba had begun and
that war was expected at any moment. On 24 April, British authorities
informed the commodore that war had been declared and he must
leave the neutral port within twenty-four hours. Dewey also received
a telegram from the Navy Department, instructing him to proceed
immediately to the Philippine Islands and begin operations against
the Spanish fleet. However, Dewey wanted to receive the latest
intelligence from the American consul at Manila, Oscar Williams,
who was expected daily. The American squadron moved to Mirs Bay
on the Chinese coast thirty miles east of Hong Kong to await a
circulating pump for the Raleigh and the arrival of Williams.
They spent two days drilling, distributing ammunition, and stripping
the ships of all wooden articles (which could add to the damage
of fires on board ship caused by enemy gunfire). Almost immediately
after Williams arrived on 27 April, the American squadron departed
for the Philippines, in search of the ships of the Spanish squadron.
After learning that war had been declared, Admiral Montojo took
his squadron into Subic Bay only to discover that the commander
there still needed another six weeks to mount his guns on Isla
Grande at the bay's entrance. On 28 April the Spanish admiral
learned that the Americans had left Mirs Bay bound for the Philippines.
After calling a council of his captains, he returned with his
ships to Manila Bay. The two passages into the latter were guarded
by seventeen guns including nine obsolete muzzle loaders. The
Spanish attempted to mine the main channel, but the water was
so deep and the entrance so wide that neither mines nor shore
batteries were an effective barrier to enemy ships passing through
during the night. Of the more than 200 guns near the city of Manila,
only twelve were breech-loaders positioned to fire out to sea.
Montojo rejected the idea of fighting under the guns of the city
because civilian structures would likely be hit by American fire.
The Spanish decided to anchor their ships in the shallow waters
under the guns of the Cavite arsenal, on a small peninsula seven
miles southwest of Manila. Deeply pessimistic about his fleet's
chances of survival, Montojo believed it best to give his men
a better chance to escape from their vessels should they be sunk
in the upcoming battle.
Consul Williams accurately reported that Montojo intended to fight
his squadron while under the guns in Subic Bay, and Dewey sent
two of his cruisers to reconnoiter. Finding Subic Bay empty, and
in defiance of the reports of mines in the channel, the Americans
pressed on into Manila Bay and discovered the Spanish squadron
near Cavite. Leaving his two auxiliaries in the bay guarded by
the McCulloch, Dewey formed his remaining ships into a
line and steamed in a oval pattern along the five-fathom curve,
pouring a heavy fire into the outgunned and obsolete Spanish force.
The enemy replied with wildly inaccurate gunfire from their ships
and two 5.9 inch guns on Sangley Point. The Americans scored critical
hits on the larger Spanish warships, setting them ablaze. After
nearly two hours of fire, Dewey ordered his captains to withdraw,
acting on reports that his ships were running low on ammunition.
Dewey took his squadron five miles off Sangley Point and signaled
his captains to come on board and report their condition. The
commodore discovered that his squadron had sustained very little
damage and that he had plenty of ammunition to continue the battle.
After allowing the crewmen to enjoy a light meal, Dewey ordered
his ships to reengage the remnants of Montojo's shattered squadron.
The Spanish admiral had pulled his surviving vessels behind Cavite
into the shallow waters of Bacoor Bay to make a final stand. Hitting
the Spanish ships in their new anchorage proved difficult, and
Dewey ordered the gunboats Concord and Petrel, with
their shallow draft, to finish off the enemy at close range. The
garrison at Cavite raised a white flag at about 12:15, and the
firing ended shortly thereafter.
Montojo's fleet was destroyed, suffering 371 casualties compared
to only 9 Americans wounded. When official word on the magnitude
of the U.S. Navy's victory reached the United States, nearly a
week later, the American public heaped enthusiastic praises on
Dewey as wild celebrations eruption throughout the country. However,
26,000 Spanish regulars and 14,000 militia garrisoned various
points in the Philippine Islands including 9000 at Manila. The
U.S. squadron took control of the arsenal and navy yard at Cavite
and Dewey cabled Washington stating that, although he controlled
Manila Bay, he needed 5000 men to seize Manila itself.
The completeness of Dewey's victory, so early in the war, prompted
the administration of President William McKinley to send the troops
necessary to capture Manila from the Spanish. The U.S. Army sent
substantially more than Dewey asked for, with 10,844, under the
command of Major General Wesley Merritt, reaching the Philippines
before the end of the war.
Meanwhile, Dewey had brought the Filipino insurgent Emilio Aguinaldo
to Cavite in May hoping to learn more about the Spanish garrison
and welcoming any distraction the Filipino rebels might provide
by their operations against Spanish forces. However, Dewey and
the American consuls in the Far East overestimated their ability
to control the consequences of these actions, which included Aguinaldo's
expectation that the United States would support his demand for
the colony's independence. By the time American forces were prepared
to assault Manila in August, the potential problems of cooperating
with the rebels became apparent to Dewey and Merritt. The American
commanders reached an oral agreement with the governor- general
at Manila to surrender the city after a brief naval bombardment
and infantry assault. On the morning of 13 August the guns from
the U.S. squadron opened fire and Merritt's troops went forward.
After sharp fighting in some quarters the Spanish surrendered,
allowing the Americans to occupy Manila, keeping the Filipino
insurgents out of most sections of the city. The peace protocol
was signed between the United States and Spain on 12 August, but
word of this did not reach Manila until four days later.
The negotiations that led to the United States accepting control
of the Philippine Islands are too lengthy to relate here in detail.
Pressured by expansionists, and fearing that another European
nation would fill the vacuum created by the collapse of Spanish
colonial power, President McKinley decided that the United States
should take over administration of the islands. It was left to
a future American government to turn control of the country to
the Filipinos. For the most part, the United States reluctantly
became a colonial power in the Pacific. Dewey's victory at Manila
Bay began a series of events that dramatically increased America's
interests and commitments across the great ocean.
2 August 1999