January 2000 Volume 2 Number
1
Guidelines for Field Applications of Imaging
Technologies
Scientific Working Group on
Imaging Technologies (SWGIT)
(Version 2.0, June 8,
1999)
Washington, D. C. 20535
December 1, 1999
Dear
Colleague,
The
Scientific Working Group on Imaging Technologies (SWGIT) includes
approximately 25 representatives from law enforcement agencies
at the federal, state, and local levels, as well as imaging scientists
from academia. In April of this year, the SWGIT issued a preliminary
set of general guidelines and recommendations for the use of
various imaging technologies by law enforcement professionals.
This draft document, "Definitions and Guidelines for the
Use of Imaging Technologies in the Criminal Justice System,"
was released on the Internet on the FBI Home Page as part of
the inaugural issue of the FBI Laboratory's electronic journal,
Forensic Science Communications (FSC). Readers
were asked to provide feedback so that we could be sure that
the guidelines address the needs of the entire law enforcement
imaging community. Based on this feedback, a revised edition
was published in the October 1999 issue of FSC.
While
the draft guidelines document addresses law enforcement imaging
applications in very general terms, the SWGIT is also preparing
additional documents that focus more specifically on different
law enforcement applications. The first of these documents, "Guidelines
for Field Applications of Imaging," has been prepared and
is being released in this edition of the FSC for general
comment. It provides general guidelines for the preparation of
agency-specific Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) for various
situations encountered by law enforcement personnel in field
settings. It also includes brief descriptions of some of the
advantages and disadvantages of each major image capture technology:
silver-based film cameras, digital still cameras, and full-motion
video cameras, along with some equipment recommendations.
This
communication is intended not only to inform you of these documents,
but also to request your assistance in the dissemination and
revision of them. To view the documents at the FBI home page
go to www.fbi.gov,
click on "FBI Library," and then select Forensic
Science Communications. Individuals with access to Law Enforcement
On-line (LEO) can also find these documents via links at the
SWGIT special interest group location.
Your
feedback is important. If you are interested in contributing
comments, please respond prior to June 1, 2000. Instructions
for submitting comments are attached. The SWGIT will incorporate
the responses generated by these drafts prior to issuing final
versions of them.
Thank
you for your assistance in this matter.
Sincerely,
SSA
Athena Varounis
Unit
Chief, Special Photographic Unit
Laboratory
Division
Back to the top
Instructions for
Submitting Comments on
"Guidelines for Field
Applications
of Imaging"
If you wish to submit comments
to the Scientific Working Group on Imaging Technologies (SWGIT),
you may do so via E-mail or surface mail.
When submitting your comments,
include the following:
1. Your name;
2. Your job title;
3. Name and address of your agency;
4. Telephone number; and
5. E-mail address.
When commenting on specific
parts or sections of the draft guidelines, please indicate the
document and section title to which you are referring, as well
as any specific wording that is in question.
If replying via E-mail, include
the previously requested information (15, above) in the
body of your E-mail and enter "SWGIT Documents Review"
as your subject line. You may include your comments in the body
of your E-mail or as an attachment in either WordPerfect or Microsoft
Word.
Forward your comments to
either of the following addresses: ddavies@leo.gov
or rvorderb@leo.gov.
If replying via surface mail,
include the previously requested information (15, above)
in a cover letter, followed by your comments, and forward them
to the following address:
Richard W. Vorder Bruegge
Federal Bureau of Investigation
Laboratory Division Room 3449
935 Pennsylvania Avenue NW
Washington DC 20535
Back to the top
Introduction
The purpose of this document
is
- To provide specific recommendations
and guidelines for the use of imaging technologies in law enforcement
field applications;
- To provide the advantages
and disadvantages of silver-based film cameras, digital cameras,
video cameras, and hybrid imaging systems in law enforcement
field applications;
- To provide general guidelines
for preparing agency-specific imaging technologies standard operating
procedures (SOPs) for law enforcement field applications; and
- To provide imaging equipment
recommendations.
This document addresses the
photographic documentation of events or subjects that are not
in a controlled environment (e.g., studio or laboratory). These
field applications include the following:
- General crime scene photography.
- First responder (FR) photography.
- When crime scene photography
personnel will not be called
- Prior to arrival of crime
scene photography personnel
- Surveillance photography.
- Tactical surveys.
- Hazardous materials (HAZMAT)
crime scene photography.
- Aerial photography.
- Accident scenes.
- Arson photography.
- Autopsy photography.
- Bombing photography.
- Mass disaster photography.
- Search warrant photography.
- Gang-related graffiti photography
(FR).
- When agency policy does
not require that crime scene photography personnel respond.
- When agency policy requires
that crime scene photography personnel respond.
- Field mug shots and tattoos
(FR).
- Victim photography.
- Administrative evidence
and property documentation.
Back to the top
Advantages
and Disadvantages of Major Image Capture Technologies in Field
Applications
The selection of an acquisition
device (camera) is driven by the purpose and requirements of
the end product. Therefore, the final use of the image should
determine the choice of the camera.
Silver-Based Film Cameras
It is strongly recommended
that conventional silver-based film be the primary capture media
for evidentiary photography or imaging in field applications.
Advantages of Silver-Based
Film Cameras in Field Applications:
- Highest resolution.
- Highest dynamic range.
- Best color range.
- Most flexibility of currently
available image options.
- Most durable storage medium.
- More readily available in
the field than video or digital storage media.
Resolution is the amount of sharpness or detail
in the image and is dependent on the amount of pixels or grain
in an image. Generally, the quality of the final image is determined
by the amount of grain or pixels contained in the primary image.
In digital imaging, resolution
is a function of the number of pixels across the width and the
height of the charge coupled device (CCD). The pixel count is
established by multiplying these numbers:
camera resolution
of 640 x 480 = 307,200 total pixels.
Pixels must be capable of
recording three colors to make a traditional color photograph.
Each color is typically recorded as a byte of information. To
determine the file size of a 640 x 480 pixel image, multiply
640 x 480 x 3 (3 colors) = 921,600 bytes or 900k.
Two hundred pixels per inch
(ppi) are generally used as the divisor to determine the acceptable
printing size from a given image resolution. (This value is considered
to be conservative by some.) In general, dividing the number
of pixels by 200 ppi will provide the optimum printing size for
an image captured by a digital camera.
For example, a camera with
a resolution of 640 x 480 pixels would be calculated:
640 pixels/200 ppi
= 3.2 inches and 480 pixels/200 ppi = 2.4 inches.
Therefore, the best photographic
result produced by this camera would be a 2.4 x 3.2-inch image
which is approximately a wallet-sized photograph. Although it
is possible to print an 8 x 10-inch photograph from an image
captured by this camera, the quality of the photograph will be
degraded. In order to produce an acceptable 5 x 7-inch photograph,
a digital camera with a resolution of 1280 x 960 pixels is required,
and a resolution of 2000 x 1600 pixels for an 8 x 10-inch photograph
is required.
Due to the extremely small
size of the silver crystals used to make a film image, the resolution
of film is dramatically higher than images produced with digital
cameras. The average 35-mm negative has an approximate resolution
of 5500 x 3600 pixels. This number changes with the ISO of the
film because faster film uses larger silver crystals. By comparison,
a digital camera with a resolution of 640 x 480 contains only
1.6 percent of the information capable of being recorded on a
35-mm negative.
Additional Comparisons
Sensor |
35-mm film |
High-end
digital cameras
(at least 1500 x 1000 pixels) |
Low-end
digital cameras
(fewer than 1500 x 1000 pixels) |
Pixel count |
5500 x 3600 |
3000 x 2000 |
1280 x 960 |
Print size |
27.5 x 18 |
15 x 10 |
6.4 x 4.8 |
Average cost
(at press) |
|
$20,000 |
$1,000 |
Dynamic range: The difference between the brightest
highlight and darkest value that a sensor (film or CCD) can detect
and record in a single image. Negative film provides from two
to four more f-stops than most digital cameras. This increased
dynamic range allows capture of both shadow detail and highlight
detail in a single frame of film. These details may require several
different images (at different capture settings) when recorded
with a digital camera.
Color range: The range of colors that can be
detected by a sensor compared to normal human vision. Negative
film has a color range that is superior to CCDs.
Flexibility: Silver-based photography provides
a wider selection of film speeds and types than digital cameras.
Film can be selected for specific applications in the field,
and the film speed or type can be changed on-site to meet specific
needs.
Disadvantages of Silver-Based
Film Cameras in Field Applications:
- Need for separate processing
and printing facilities.
- Relatively long processing
time.
- Environmental hazards generated
by processing byproducts.
- Preprocessing fragility
(e.g., temperature, humidity, X-ray effects).
- No means of immediate image
evaluation (with the exception of
instant film).
Back to the top
Digital
Cameras
Advantages of Digital
Cameras in Field Applications:
- Immediacy of image (instant
viewing and verification of image).
- Ability to transmit and
disseminate image with minimum of intermediate steps.
- On-site image management.
- On-site image printing.
- Operational security (all
processing is in-house).
- More environmentally friendly
than film.
Disadvantages of Digital
Cameras in Field Applications:
- Battery or power supplies
(environmental impact, availability, power conversion).
- Limited availability of
storage media (available only from specialized stores).
- Storage media subject to
damage from electromagnetic fields.
- Image acquisition subject
to electromagnetic interference.
- Automatic compression in
some digital cameras.
- Hardware and software frequently
proprietary and incompatible between manufacturers.
- Requires increased technical
support compared to film-only systems.
- Legacy file problem (evolution
of technology, including hardware and software, may impact ability
to access archived images over time).
Notes on Digital Cameras:
- High-end digital cameras
are designed for the professional market and typically
have sensors with at least 1500 x 1000 pixels. These cameras
have imaging versatility including interchangeable lenses, macro-to-telephoto
capabilities, off-camera flash, full-manual override, focus override,
and through-the-lens (TTL) viewing and focus.
- Low-end digital cameras
are designed for the consumer market and typically have
sensors with less than 1500 x 1000 pixels. These cameras do not
have the versatility of high-end cameras and may be referred
to as point-and-shoot cameras.
Back to the top
Video
Cameras
Advantages of Video Cameras
in Field Applications:
- Real-time motion record
capability.
- Immediacy of image (instant
viewing and verification of image).
- Ability to transmit and
disseminate image with minimum intermediate steps.
- More environmentally friendly
than film.
- Ability to print in the
field.
- Ability to synchronize and
capture audio.
Disadvantages of Video
Cameras in Field Applications:
- Battery or power supplies
(environmental impact, availability, power conversion).
- Limited availability of
high-quality storage media (all formats available only from specialized
stores).
- Storage media subject to
damage from electromagnetic fields.
- Image acquisition highly
subject to electromagnetic interference.
- Resolution of still images
is less than that of digital or silver-based capture media.
- Limited color fidelity.
- Reduced media lifetime.
- Hand-held video frequently
lacks image stability.
- Automatic compression in
some formats.
- Weight and portability of
equipment may be a problem.
Notes on Video Formats:
- VHS and 8-mm formats are
the most commonly available formats but have the worst signal-to-noise
ratio of any video format (greatest amount of noise).
- Super VHS and Hi-8 formats
are the second most commonly available formats and have somewhat
better signal-to-noise ratio than VHS.
- Beta SP and MII formats
are professional broadcast quality and are the best analog format
available.
- Digital video quality varies,
and the high-end is better than analog systems.
Back to the top
Hybrid
Imaging Systems
A hybrid imaging system is
a combination of silver-based photography and digital imaging
technology that typically involves the conversion of silver-based
film or print images to digital images through the use of scanners.
Hybrid imaging systems incorporate some of the benefits of both
film and digital image technologies and are recommended for agencies
and organizations seeking to add digital imaging technologies
to their photographic resources.
Advantages of Hybrid Imaging
Systems in Field Applications:
- Shortened darkroom time
for producing prints.
- Maintains high-quality original
film images.
- Flexibility of digital image
processing.
- Enables easy electronic
transmission of images.
- Enables image analysis.
- Simplifies case-file management.
- Ability to use a variety
of output devices.
Disadvantages of Hybrid
Imaging Systems in Field Applications:
- Separate processing and
printing facilities.
- Relatively long processing
time.
- Environmental hazards generated
by processing byproducts.
- Preprocessing fragility
(e.g., temperature, humidity, X-ray effects).
- No means of immediate image
evaluation (with the exception of instant film).
- Requires increased technical
support compared to film-only systems.
Back to the top
Guidelines
For Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)
General Guidelines for a Crime Scene Photography
SOP
Title: Crime Scene Photography SOP.
Purpose: To permanently document, by qualified
personnel, evidence and other details at a crime scene for future
reference.
Note: Crime scene photography generally requires
the ability:
- To record information that
crime scene personnel may not know was important at the time
the images were captured,
- To deal with varying lighting
and physical conditions,
- To accurately represent
the details and colors at a crime scene, and
- To get close-up and wide-angle
images with accurate spatial relationships.
Crime scene photography is
usually a time-limited activity in which there is only one opportunity
to correctly complete the task. Depending on the nature of the
crime or incident, conditions at a crime scene may dictate the
selection and use of equipment and techniques.
Equipment: (Image Capture Devices)
- Silver-based film cameras
are recommended for use as the primary image capture device.
The minimum recommendation is a 35-mm (SLR) camera capable of
manual override, interchangeable lenses, off-camera flash, and
tripod mount.
- Digital still imaging can
be used in a supplementary capacity. (See Digital
Cameras.) Digital still imaging can be used when the performance
of the equipment can be shown to meet anticipated needs.
- Video imaging can be used
in a supplementary capacity. S-VHS, Hi-8, or better quality formats
are recommended. It is suggested that cameras have the ability
to incorporate external or wireless audio, to disable on-camera
audio, and to incorporate in-camera image stabilization. (See
Video Cameras.)
- Other standard photographic
equipment as necessary.
Procedures: Agency-specific step-by-step instructions
for documenting crime scene evidence.
Calibration: If considered necessary, agencies
should develop procedures specific to their needs.
Calculations: If considered necessary, agencies
should develop procedures specific to their needs.
Limitations: See Advantages
and Disadvantages of Major Image Capture Technologies in Field
Applications.
Safety: Agencies should develop procedures
specific to their needs.
References: Agency-specific documentation and
manufacturers' manuals.
Back to the top
General
Guidelines for a First Responder SOP (A)
(A) The only images
taken are those by the first responding officer(s).
Title: First Responder Photography SOP.
Purpose: To document conditions found at
an incident by the first law enforcement officer(s) on the scene
where a crime scene photography unit or specialist will not be
requested.
Note: Examples may include domestic violence incidents,
traffic accidents, minor property crimes, and other incidents
as defined by agency-specific policies. Photography generally
is not the first responder's primary responsibility, and the
first responder may have only a minimal amount of photography
training.
Equipment: (Image Capture Devices)
- Silver-based media film
camera. The minimum recommendation is a 35-mm camera with flash
and close-up capability.
- Digital still imaging. The
minimum recommendation is for a camera with more than 640 x 480
pixels, on-camera viewer, close-up capability, flash, and removable
storage media.
- Video imaging can be used
in a supplementary capacity. S-VHS, Hi-8, or better quality formats
are recommended. It is suggested that cameras have the ability
to incorporate external or wireless audio, to disable on-camera
audio, and to incorporate in-camera image stabilization. (See
Video Cameras.)
- Other standard photographic
equipment as necessary.
Procedures: Agency-specific step-by-step instructions
for documenting the scene.
Note: Images from separate incidents should be
clearly delineated through a change of storage media or through
proper documentation.
Calibration: If considered necessary, agencies
should develop procedures specific to their needs.
Calculations: If considered necessary, agencies
should develop procedures specific to their needs.
Limitations: Successful capture of close-up
images will require adhering to manufacturers' specifications.
Images captured digitally typically have a limited enlargement
capability that is less than those captured using 35-mm film.
(See Advantages and Disadvantages
of Major Image Capture Technologies in Field Applications.)
Successful capture of images also requires using fresh media
(e.g., film that is not past expiration and has been stored properly)
and well-maintained equipment .
Safety: Agencies should develop procedures
specific to their needs.
References: Agency-specific documentation and
manufacturers' manuals.
Back to the top
General
Guidelines for a First Responder SOP (B)
(B) Images taken
by the first responding officer(s) prior to arrival of a crime
scene photographer.
Title: First Responder Photography SOP.
Purpose: To document conditions found at
an incident by the first law enforcement officer(s) on the scene
prior to the arrival of a crime scene photographer.
Note: This guideline is directed toward documenting
transient conditions that might be lost prior to the arrival
of crime scene photographers. Examples include situations in
which evidence must or might be moved, lost, or altered. Photography
generally is not the first responder's primary responsibility,
and the first responder may have only a minimal amount of photography
training.
Equipment: (Image Capture Devices)
- Silver-based media film
camera. The minimum recommendation is a 35-mm camera with flash
and close-up capability.
- Digital still imaging. The
minimum recommendation is for a camera with more than 640 x 480
pixels, on-camera viewer, close-up capability, flash, and removable
storage media.
- Video imaging can be used
in a supplementary capacity. S-VHS, Hi-8, or better quality formats
are recommended. It is suggested that cameras have the ability
to incorporate external or wireless audio, to disable on-camera
audio, and to incorporate in-camera image stabilization. (See
Video Cameras.)
- Other standard photographic
equipment as necessary.
Procedures: Agency-specific step-by-step instructions
for documenting the scene.
Note: Images from separate incidents should be
clearly delineated through a change of storage media or proper
documentation.
Calibration: If considered necessary, agencies
should develop procedures specific to their needs.
Calculations: If considered necessary, agencies
should develop procedures specific to their needs.
Limitations: The successful capture of close-up
images will require adhering to the manufacturers' specifications.
Images captured digitally or with video typically have a limited
enlargement capability that is less than those captured using
35-mm film. (See Advantages
and Disadvantages of Major Image Capture Technologies in Field
Applications.) Successful capture of images also requires
using fresh media (film that is not past expiration and has been
stored properly and new, unused videotapes) and well-maintained
equipment.
Safety: Agencies should develop procedures
specific to their needs.
References: Agency-specific documentation and
manufacturers' manuals.
Back to the top
General Guidelines for a Surveillance Photography
SOP
Title: Surveillance
Photography SOP.
Purpose: To document acts and individuals
engaged in those acts as they occur.
Note: Surveillance activities may involve highly
specialized techniques and equipment that require technical training
and knowledge and are best accomplished by trained specialists.
Equipment: (Image Capture Devices)
- Silver-based media film
camera. The minimum recommendation is a 35-mm camera with capability
to disable the flash and infrared auto-focus transmitter.
- Digital still imaging. The
minimum recommendation is for a camera with a minimum pixel resolution
of 1500 x 1000 pixels, capability to accommodate long telephoto
lenses, and to disable the flash and infrared auto-focus transmitter.
In covert surveillance situations, illumination of the photographer
by the LCD screen may compromise safety.
- Video imaging can be used
in a supplementary capacity. S-VHS, Hi-8, or better quality formats
are recommended. It is suggested that cameras have the ability
to incorporate external or wireless audio, to disable on-camera
audio, and to incorporate in-camera image stabilization. (See
Video Cameras.)
- Other standard photographic
equipment as necessary.
Note: State laws may limit the legality of audiotaping.
Check local statutes for the legality of all surveillance activities.
Specialized equipment: Night vision and thermal imaging
equipment.
Procedures: Agency-specific step-by-step instructions
for surveillance activities. If audio is used, simultaneous recording
of audio with video on the same media and testing of the system
prior to use is strongly recommended.
Calibration: If considered necessary, agencies
should develop procedures specific to their needs.
Calculations: If considered necessary, agencies
should develop procedures specific to their needs.
Limitations: The successful capture of images
sufficient for identification of depicted individuals and/or
objects (e.g, license plates) will require close attention to
the selection and appropriate use of equipment.
Images captured digitally
or with video typically have a limited enlargement capability
that is less than those captured using 35-mm film. (See Advantages
and Disadvantages of Major Image Capture Technologies in Field
Applications.) The successful capture of images also requires
using fresh media (e.g., film that is not past expiration and
has been stored properly; new, unused videotapes) and well-maintained
equipment.
Safety: Agencies should develop procedures
specific to their needs.
References: Agency-specific documentation,
manufacturers' manuals, and local statutes.
Back to the top
General
Guidelines for a Tactical Survey SOP
Title: Tactical Survey
SOP.
Purpose: To document conditions at a location
so that plans can be made for future law enforcement activities.
Note: Tactical photography is directed at obtaining
general information regarding the physical layout and major contents
of a location in preparation for law enforcement activities.
Equipment: (Image Capture Devices)
- Silver-based media film
camera. The minimum recommendation is a 35-mm camera.
- Digital still imaging. Minimum
recommendation is for a camera with more than 640 x 480 pixels.
- Video imaging. S-VHS, Hi-8,
or better quality formats are recommended. It is suggested that
cameras have the ability to incorporate external or wireless
audio, to disable on-camera audio, and to incorporate in-camera
image stabilization.
(See Video Cameras.)
- Other standard photographic
equipment as necessary.
Procedures: Agency-specific step-by-step instructions
for documenting locations.
Calibration: If considered necessary, agencies
should develop procedures specific to their needs.
Calculations: If considered necessary, agencies
should develop procedures specific to their needs.
Limitations: Location-specific limitations may
apply.
Safety: Agencies should develop procedures
specific to their needs.
References: Agency-specific documentation and
manufacturers' manuals.
Back to the top
General Guidelines for a HAZMAT Scene Photography
SOP
Title: HAZMAT Scene
Photography SOP.
Purpose: To permanently document, by qualified
personnel, evidence and other details at a crime scene that may
contain biological, chemical, and/or radiological hazards.
Note: A careful assessment of each HAZMAT scene
is necessary prior to committing personnel and equipment. The
means for inserting, removing, and sanitizing personnel and equipment
from a scene should be planned prior to initial entry. HAZMAT
scene photography generally requires the ability
- To record information that
crime scene personnel may not realize was important at the time
the images were captured,
- To deal with varying lighting
conditions,
- To accurately represent
all of the details and colors at a crime scene, and
- To get close-up and wide-angle
images with accurate spatial relationships.
HAZMAT crime scene photography
is usually a time-limited activity in which there is only one
opportunity to correctly complete the task. This type of photography
usually involves the use of protective clothing and gear that
makes the operation of photographic equipment more difficult.
Equipment: (Image Capture Devices)
- Silver-based film cameras
are recommended for use as the primary image capture device.
The minimum recommendation is a 35-mm (SLR) camera capable of
manual override, interchangeable lenses, off-camera flash, and
tripod mount. If protective housings are not available but needed,
disposable, water-proof 35-mm cameras may be necessary for some
HAZMAT scene photography.
- Digital still imaging can
be used as the primary means when the performance of the equipment
can be shown to meet anticipated needs or when contamination
issues may preclude the use of silver-based media. Otherwise,
digital still imaging can be used in a supplementary capacity.
(See Digital Cameras.) The minimum
recommendation is for a high-end camera.
- Video imaging can be used
in a supplementary capacity. S-VHS, Hi-8, or better quality formats
are recommended. It is suggested that cameras have the ability
to incorporate external or wireless audio, to disable on-camera
audio, and to incorporate in-camera image stabilization. (See
Video Cameras.)
- Other standard photographic
equipment as necessary.
Specialized equipment: Equipment for protecting personnel
and camera systems.
Procedures: Agency-specific step-by-step instructions
for documenting crime scene evidence.
Calibration: If necessary, agencies should develop
procedures specific to their needs.
Calculations: If considered necessary, agencies
should develop procedures specific to their needs.
Limitations: See Advantages
and Disadvantages of Major Image Capture Technologies in Field
Applications.
Protective equipment will
hamper the use of some equipment, and conditions may not permit
the use of other equipment (e.g., flash, film).
Safety: Agencies should develop procedures
specific to their needs.
References: Agency-specific documentation and
manufacturers' manuals.
Back to the top
General
Guidelines for an Aerial Photography SOP
Title: Aerial Photography
SOP.
Purpose: To document locations, activities,
and geographical relationships using aircraft as a platform.
Note: Aerial photography may involve highly specialized
techniques and equipment that require technical training and
knowledge and is best accomplished by trained specialists.
Equipment: (Image Capture Devices)
- Silver-based media film
camera. The minimum recommendation is a 35-mm camera capable
of manual operation.
- Digital still imaging. The
minimum recommendation is for a camera with a pixel resolution
of 3000 x 2000 pixels or higher.
- Video imaging can be used
in a supplementary capacity. S-VHS, Hi-8, or better quality formats
are recommended. It is suggested that cameras have the ability
to incorporate external or wireless audio, to disable on-camera
audio, and to incorporate in-camera image stabilization. (See
Video Cameras.)
- Other standard photographic
equipment as necessary.
Specialized equipment: Night vision or thermal imaging
equipment.
Procedures: Agency-specific step-by-step instructions
for aerial photography activities.
Calibration: If necessary, agencies should develop
procedures specific to their needs.
Calculations: If necessary, agencies should develop
procedures specific to their needs.
Limitations: Check local statutes for legality
of all surveillance activities.
Images captured digitally
or with video typically have a limited enlargement capability
that is less than those captured using 35-mm film. (See Advantages
and Disadvantages of Major Image Capture Technologies in Field
Applications.) Successful capture of images also requires
using fresh media (e.g., film that is not past expiration and
has been stored properly and new, unused videotapes) and well-maintained
equipment.
Safety: Agencies should develop procedures
specific to their needs.
References: Agency-specific documentation,
manufacturers' manuals, and local statutes.
Back to the top
General Guidelines for an Accident Scene Photography
SOP (A)
When agency policy
does not require that crime scene photography personnel respond.
See
General Guidelines for a First Responder SOP (A).
General Guidelines for
an Accident Scene Photography SOP (B)
When agency policy
requires that crime scene photography personnel respond.
See General
Guidelines for a Crime Scene Photography SOP.
General
Guidelines for an Arson Scene Photography SOP
See General
Guidelines for a Crime Scene Photography SOP.
General Guidelines for
Autopsy Photography SOP
See General
Guidelines for a Crime Scene Photography SOP.
General Guidelines for
a Bombing Scene Photography SOP
See General
Guidelines for a Crime Scene Photography SOP.
General Guidelines for
a Mass Disaster Scene Photography SOP
See General
Guidelines for a Crime Scene Photography SOP.
General Guidelines for
a Search Warrant Photography SOP
See General
Guidelines for a Crime Scene Photography SOP.
General Guidelines for
a Gang-Related Graffiti Photography SOP
See General
Guidelines for a First Responder SOP.
General Guidelines for
a Field Mug Shots and Tattoos Photography SOP
See General
Guidelines for a First Responder SOP.
General Guidelines for
a Victim Photography SOP
See General
Guidelines for a Crime Scene Photography SOP.
Back to the top
FORENSIC SCIENCE COMMUNICATIONS JANUARY 2000 VOLUME 2 NUMBER
1 |