A brake works by converting kinetic energy into heat. When all of the kinetic energy is converted the vehicle is stopped and the brakes are hot. Problems can arise due to melting of the wheel surrounding the brake, boiling of the hydraulic fluid and fade of the brake material. Secondary problems arise due to excessive wear and noise generated during a stop. These secondary problems usually are not life threatening; however, their treatment represents huge warranty costs. Research carried out at the Center for Advanced Friction Studies at Southern Illinois University (EEC-9523372) has led to isolation of many of the materials-dependent sources that contribute to such problems. One finding is that noise in automobile brakes can be generated by the formation of a layer of material on the surface with characteristics different from the bulk material. To address this problem, Center researchers found that the properties of this “friction layer” can be tailored using “smart” criteria. Combining different metallic oxides with amorphous carbon can completely eliminate any noise. In addition, noise and vibration of carbon-carbon aircraft brakes can be controlled by heating the friction material to temperatures that convert all carbon containing materials to solid carbon with no remaining carbon free radicals. In automobile brakes, the constituents present in the friction layer sensitively control wear. Balancing the content of metals and solid lubricants can eliminate any large adhesive forces that might be generated between the rubbing surfaces.