Language-based learning disabilities interfere with age-appropriate reading, spelling, and/or writing. This disorder does not impair intelligence; in fact, most people diagnosed with learning disabilities possess average to superior intelligence. Learning disabilities are caused by a difference in brain structure that is present at birth, is often hereditary, and often related to specific language problems.
The term dyslexia has been used to refer to the specific learning problem of reading. Because of the increased recognition of the relationship between spoken and written language, and the frequent presence of spoken language problems in children with reading problems, the term language-based learning disabilities, or just learning disabilities, is more accurate.
Who Is At Risk
Children at risk for dyslexia and other learning disabilities may have several of the following characteristics:
- A family history of delayed speech-language development or literacy problems
- Difficulty processing sounds in words
- Difficulty finding the words needed to express basic thoughts/ideas and more complex explanations/descriptions
- Difficulty with the comprehension of spoken and/or written language, including, for older children, classroom handouts and textbooks
- Delayed vocabulary development
- Problems with the understanding and use of grammar in sentences
- Difficulty remembering numbers and letters in sequence, questions, and directions
- Difficulty with organization and planning, including, for older students, the drafting of school papers and longer-term school projects.
Other Language Problems
The child with dyslexia has trouble almost exclusively with the written (or printed) word. The child who has dyslexia as part of a larger language learning disability has trouble with both the spoken and the written word. These problems may include:
Speech-Language Pathologist
As part of a collaborative team consisting of the parents and educational professionals (i.e., teacher(s), special educators, psychologist), the speech-language pathologist has several responsibilities.
He or she:
- informs teachers and other school professionals as to how to identify children who are at risk for developing problems before they experience failure in the classroom.
- works with professionals to help prevent problems before they occur by promoting opportunities for success with spoken and written language at home and school.
- performs assessments of spoken (speaking and listening) and written (reading and writing) language for children who have been identified by their teachers and parents as having difficulty
- provides treatment for those children who have language problems contributing to difficulties with reading and writing
Prevention
The speech-language pathologist consults with both educators and parents to teach and model language activities that promote success. He or she may:
- explain the importance of joint book reading and provides demonstration lessons. For example, The speech-language pathologist may illustrate how to improve students vocabulary skills by having children name items in story pictures and describe the action(s) in these pictures.
- model how to sharpen comprehension skills by asking questions related to a story plot and having the child predict what may happen next in the story.
- have the child retell a story in their own words or act out the story.
- teach how to increase the child's awareness of print in their environment (e.g., recognition of frequently encountered signs and logos) and the conventions of print (e.g., how to hold a book or that reading and writing are done from left to right)
- demonstrate strategies to teach letters and their corresponding sounds
- show ways that teachers and parents can model literacy activities (e.g., by reading newspapers and magazines, by writing notes and letters, by making writing materials available for everybody' s use).
Speech and Language Assessment
- The clinician begins by interviewing the parents and teacher(s) regarding academic concerns and the child's performance in the classroom.
For preschool students, the speech-language pathologist gathers information about literacy experiences in the home. For example, are there books and other types of reading material around the home? How frequently does the child see family members writing letters, notes, lists, etc.? How often do family members read stories to the child?
- The speech-language pathologist observes the child during classroom activities. He or she evaluates the child's ability to understand verbal and written directions and to attend to written information on the blackboard, daily plans, etc.
When evaluating a preschool child, the speech-language pathologist looks for awareness of print. Can the child recognize familiar signs and logos, hold a book correctly and turn the pages, recognize and/or write his or her name, demonstrate pretend writing (writing that resembles letters and numbers), and recognize and/or write letters. For the older child, the clinician observes whether he or she can read and understand information on handouts and in textbooks.
- The speech-language pathologist assesses the student's phonological awareness skills (ability to hear and "play with" the sounds in words.
When evaluating a preschool student, the speech-language pathologist may have the child tap or clap out the different syllables in words. He or she may have the child state whether or not two words rhyme or give a list of words that rhyme with a specified word.
When evaluating an older student, the speech-language pathologist may have him or her put together syllables and sounds to make a word. He or she may have the child break up a word into its syllables and/or sounds (e.g., "cat" has one syllable but three sounds c-a-t). The speech-language pathologist assesses the older child's phonological memory by having him or her repeat strings of words, numbers, letters, and sounds of increasing length.
- Spelling, writing, and reading are assessed with older students. In some settings, the speech-language pathologist completes these assessments as part of a team while in other settings he or she helps the educational team interpret the results of reading and writing assessments completed by other evaluators. The reading evaluation focuses on the student's ability to decode (sound out) words, read irregular spelling patterns, read fluently, comprehend texts that differ in length and complexity, and comprehend different types of material (e.g., stories versus non-fiction texts).
The writing evaluation focuses on the student's ability to spell and write longer texts. Does spelling show that the child understands the sounds that different letters make? Does he or she correctly use irregular spelling patterns? Do writing samples show evidence of planning? Are they organized, sequential, and coherent? Are correct grammar and vocabulary used?
- The speech-language pathologist completes a formal evaluation of speech and language skills . Speech articulation (pronunciation and clarity of speech) is assessed. Understanding and use of grammar ( syntax ), understanding and use of vocabulary ( semantics ), and the client's ability to provide an extended narrative ( language sample ) are evaluated. Can the child explain something or retell a story, centering on a topic and chaining a sequence of events together? Does the narrative make sense or is it difficult to follow? Can the child describe the "plot" in an action picture?
- Executive functioning is evaluated. The speech-language pathologist assesses the child's ability to plan, organize, and attend to details (e.g., does he or she plan/organize his or her writing? is he or she able to keep track of assignments and school materials). The speech-language pathologist may read an incomplete story and ask the child to provide a logical beginning, middle, or conclusion. The child is also asked to provide solutions to problems ( reasoning and problem solving ). For example, what would you do if you locked your keys in your car? How can this problem be avoided in the future?).
Treatment
The goals of speech and language treatment for the child with a reading problem target the specific aspects of reading and writing that the student is missing. For example, if the student is able to decode text but is unable to understand the details of what has been read, comprehension is addressed. If a younger student has difficulty distinguishing the different sounds that make up words, treatment will focus on activities that support growth in this skill area (rhyming, tapping out syllables, etc.).
Individualized programs always relate to the curriculum. Therefore, materials for treatment are taken from or are directly related to curricular content (e.g., textbooks for reading activities, assigned papers for writing activities, practice of oral reports for English class). The student is taught to apply newly learned language strategies to classroom activities and assignments. To assist the child best, the speech-language pathologist may work side-by-side with the child in his or her classroom(s).
Intervention with spoken language (speaking and listening) can also be designed to support the development of written language . For example, after listening to a story, the student may be asked to state and write answers to questions. He or she may be asked to give a verbal and then a written summary of the story.
Articulation (pronunciation) needs are also treated in a way that supports written language. For example, if the child is practicing saying words to improve pronunciation of a certain sound, he or she may be asked to read these words from a printed list.
The speech-language pathologist consults and collaborates with teachers to develop the use of strategies and techniques in the classroom . For example, he or she may help the teacher modify how new material is presented in lessons to accommodate the child's comprehension needs. He or she may also demonstrate what planning strategies the student uses to organize and focus written assignments.
Learning problems should be addressed as early as possible. Many children with learning disabilities that are treated later, when language demands are greater, experience lowered self-esteem due to their previous academic frustrations and failures. Learning problems that go untreated can lead to a significant decrease in confidence, school phobia (e.g., not wanting to go to school, not wanting to do homework), and depression.
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