This
paper was published with modifications in: Am
J of Epideimol, 2003; 157:388-398 |
HLA-DPB1 and
Chronic Beryllium Disease
by Erin
C. McCanlies1,
Kathleen Kreiss2,
Michael Andrew1
and Ainsley Weston3
1
Biostatistics and Epidemiology Branch, Health Effects
Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV.
2 Field Studies Branch, Division of Respiratory
Disease Studies, National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV.
3 Toxicology and Molecular Biology Branch,
Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV.
Received for publication
December 20, 2001; accepted for publication September
30, 2002.
AT-A-GLANCE
|
The human leukocyte antigen (HLA) complex
is a series of genes located on chromosome 6
that are important in normal immune function.
Susceptibility to chronic beryllium disease,
a granulomatous lung disease that appears in
workers exposed to beryllium, is modified by
genetic variants of the HLA-DP subregion. Evaluation
of HLA-DPB1 sequence motifs in current and former
beryllium workers implicated a glutamic acid
residue at position 69 (HLA-DPB1Glu69) in chronic
beryllium disease. This finding has since been
extended to specific HLA-DPB1Glu69 alleles.
Specific job tasks have also been implicated
in degree of risk, and in this paper the authors
explore gene-environment interaction. The utility
of this genetic information for prospective,
current, and former beryllium workers must be
weighed against the potential for employment
and insurance discrimination. Continued research
in the beryllium-exposed population will be
important for improving personal risk assessment
and identifying high-risk genes associated with
disease progression. Key Words: berylliosis;
beryllium; chronic beryllium disease; epidemiology;
genetic screening; HLA-DP antigens; HLA-DPB1;
occupational exposure
Abbreviations: Arg, arginine; Asp, aspartic
acid; BHWCD, beryllium hypersensitivity without
clinical disease; CBD, chronic beryllium disease;
CI, confidence interval; Glu, glutamic acid;
HLA, human leukocyte antigen; Lys, lysine;
OR, odds ratio; TNF-, tumor necrosis factor-.
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GENE |
The human leukocyte
antigen (HLA) complex comprises closely
linked genes located on the short arm
of chromosome 6 that include HLA-A,
-B, -C, and -D. The HLA-A, -B, and -C loci code for class
I molecules. The HLA-D region consists of three primary subregions designated DP, DQ, and DR, and these loci code for class II molecules. A map of chromosome 6p12.3
shows the relative locations of
the HLA genes (Figure
1) (1). Both class
I and class II molecules are extremely
important in immunologic processes, specifically
the presentation of foreign and self
antigens to the cell surface for
T-cell recognition (2).
Although the HLA-DP molecule
has not been studied as extensively
as HLA-DR or HLA-DQ, it shares similar functional characteristics of
antigen presentation to the T-cell
and induces a strong secondary proliferative
response. |
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GENE VARIANTS |
Variations
encoded in
and ß chains of the DP molecule
are located at the second exon (3).
The
helical walls and the ß pleated
sheet floor form the peptide binding groove.
Polymorphisms are generally restricted
to amino acid residues that form
this groove and that interact with the peptide
or T-cell receptor. These polymorphic
residues in the
and ß chains account for
most of the association of HLA with disease
(3). Inheritance
of certain alleles may lead to either an absent
or a vigorous T-cell response to a given
antigen. A strong response protects
from some infectious disease, but it can also
result in adverse pathologic events
(3).
To date, 100
different HLA-DPB1 alleles and
20 HLA-DPA1 alleles have
been described (3-10).
Certain HLA-DP alleles are
thought to play a role in acute graft
rejection, pauciarticular juvenile
rheumatoid arthritis, and sarcoidosis (11,
12). Among the
Japanese, HLA-DPB1*0501 has
been found to be associated with
opticospinal multiple sclerosis (13,
14). HLA-DP has
also been found to be associated
with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
in the Japanese and Indian populations (15,
16). Furthermore,
the family of HLA-DPB1
alleles characterized by a glutamic acid
residue in the 69th position has been
found to be associated with hard
metal disease and chronic beryllium disease
(17-24). There
are 34 such alleles, and it is likely that
levels of risk vary by allele.
This review will focus on the role of HLA-DPB1
in chronic beryllium disease.
We searched MEDLINE
using the keyword "HLA-DP" for papers
published between 1993 and 2002.
The search was limited to human subjects
and the English language. We then identified
relevant papers and critically
evaluated them for inclusion in or exclusion
from the current review. We were specifically
interested in identifying population
frequencies for those alleles that contain
a glutamic acid residue in the 69th
position (Table
1) (25-38).
Table
1 reports either the allelic frequency
(F), the carrier frequency
(C), or both for the HLA-DPB1*02
and non-HLA-DPB1*02alleles
reported in different populations. The alleles
listed are only those for HLA-DPB1Glu69
and are not necessarily all of
the alleles genotyped. Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
was estimated in four of these
studies and was found to be nonsignificant
(35-38). Because
of the lack of data for the majority
of the studies, however, neither Hardy-Weinberg
equilibrium nor the frequencies
associated with heterozygosity versus homozygosity
could be determined (25-38).
For this reason, the allelic frequencies,
particularly in studies with small populations,
might not represent true population
frequencies. Furthermore, different
laboratory methods probably introduce varying
degrees of error. High-resolution
allele-specific sequencing data are the
most reliable, followed by sequence-specific
oligonucleotide probes and dot
blot hybridization. Even in light of these
limitations, the results indicate
that there are considerable differences
in the frequency of the HLA-DPB1Glu69-containing
alleles across populations. For
example, HLA-DPB1*02 occurred
most often in the Tolai people
of Papua New Guinea (total F = 0.58),
followed by Australian aboriginals
from the central desert (F = 0.36)
(27, 38).
There also appear to be populations in which
HLA-DPB1*02 occurs
with such a small frequency as to be almost
nonexistent. This is true for natives
of the Trobriand Islands (F = 0.006)
and a large number of Colombian aboriginals
(F = 0.00) (29,
38). Similarly,
the frequencies for non-HLA-DPB1*02 are also highly variable. HLA-DPB1*1301 occurred with the highest frequency in
a Borneo population (F = 0.43) (38).
However, the prevalence of this
same allele was greatly reduced in a Liberian
population (F = 0.03) (35). |
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DISEASES |
Individuals
who are exposed to beryllium dust or fumes
are at risk of lung cancer and
a granulomatous lung disease called chronic
beryllium disease (CBD) (39-43).
Beryllium is atomic number 4 on
the periodic table of the elements. Its light
weight, stability, and considerable
strength make it an ideal element
for numerous technological applications. It
is extracted from beryl ore or
bertrandite and is generally sold as beryllium
oxide powder, beryllium alloys, or pure
beryllium metal. Beryllium products
are used in the aerospace industry, the nuclear
power industry, electronics, and
the manufacture of dental prostheses
(39-41). Exposure
to beryllium occurs primarily among workers
in beryllium manufacturing plants in which
welding, machining, heating, grinding,
melting, and pressing of beryllia ceramics
may result in the production of respirable
beryllium particles (41).
However, beryllium exposure and risk of CBD
may also occur among secondary users
of beryllium products who further
adapt them by grinding, welding, or machining,
which also results in respirable
beryllium particles. Workers in precious
metal reclamation and construction workers
in beryllium-using facilities are
also at risk (44). Currently,
it is not known how many persons
are or have been exposed to beryllium, although
estimates range from a low of 21,233
to a high of 800,000 (44-46).
Estimates are important, however, because
exposure confers a lifetime risk
of CBD.
Since 1960, a
series of epidemiologic studies have been
conducted to evaluate the excess
risks of lung cancer and mortality among
beryllium workers (47-58).
Although a number of methodological problems
plagued many of the earlier studies (59),
in 1980 the International Agency
for Research on Cancer classified beryllium
as a probable human carcinogen (class
2A) (42). This was later
revised, and in 1993 beryllium and beryllium
compounds were classified as human
carcinogens (group 1) (43).
However, CBD overshadows lung cancer
as a significant problem for beryllium
workers.
Morbidity
Exposure to beryllium triggers a cell-mediated,
type IV delayed hypersensitivity reaction
that results in the proliferation of beryllium-specific
T lymphocytes (60,
61). This immunologic
response can be monitored in the blood using
the beryllium lymphocyte proliferation test,
which is used to indicate beryllium sensitization
in exposed workers (62-65).
Further clinical evaluation is then necessary
to determine whether granuloma formation has
occurred, resulting in a diagnosis of CBD.
The prevalence of beryllium sensitization
among beryllium-exposed workers has been reported
to be between 1 percent and 12 percent (Table
2) (63-69).
Part of this variation may be a result of
the poor reproducibility of the beryllium
lymphocyte proliferation test between and
within laboratories. Higher prevalence rates
are often reported when two laboratories receive
split samples than when a single laboratory
is used.
Of sensitized persons, 36–100 percent
have evidence of granulomatous lung disease
(Table
2)
(63-69). Currently,
it is not known whether all sensitized persons
will develop CBD. Individuals with CBD often
develop shortness of breath, cough, chest
discomfort, fatigue, and weight loss. Severe
disease results in pulmonary failure (40,
70). However,
in its initial stages, beryllium disease may
be asymptomatic. Before the advent of beryllium
lymphocyte proliferation test screening and
identification of subclinical disease, the
average latency period for clinical disease
was reported to be 10 years (71).
Shorter latency periods are evident with sensitization
screening and clinical evaluation of asymptomatic
sensitized workers (69).
Mortality
Only a few studies have been conducted to
evaluate mortality rates associated with CBD
(56-58,
72). Among beryllium-exposed
workers, excess mortality has been observed
for lung cancer, heart disease, diseases of
the respiratory system (e.g., beryllium disease,
emphysema, pneumoconiosis), and diseases of
the genitourinary system (56-58).
As of 1993, 36 percent of the persons registered
in the United Kingdom Beryllium Case Registry
had died from respiratory failure associated
with beryllium disease (72).
A similar study utilizing data from the United
States Beryllium Case Registry (71,
73-75) reported
that 62 percent of eligible persons had died.
The primary cause of death in this cohort
was reported as "pneumoconioses, other
respiratory disease," a classification
often used for beryllium disease (56).
However, ascertainment problems may affect
both the United Kingdom Beryllium Case Registry
and the United States Beryllium Case Registry,
resulting in inaccuracy in mortality rates.
For example, prior to the advent of the beryllium
lymphocyte proliferation test, it was difficult
to distinguish beryllium disease from other
granulomatous lung diseases, particularly
sarcoidosis. Furthermore, some CBD patients
may have been excluded from the registry because
they were not actively sought out for registration
or because their physicians did not recognize
CBD or refer them for registration (71-75).
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ASSOCIATIONS |
The rationale
for the investigation of genetic variation at HLA-DP loci was based on observations
that implicated major histocompatibility
complex class II antigen-bearing cells in
a beryllium-specific T-lymphocyte-mediated
response in CBD (19).
In 1993, Richeldi et al. (19)
evaluated the presence of HLA-DPB1
variants at codons 36, 55–57, and 65–69
in persons with and without CBD.
No significant association was seen between
CBD and variants at codon 36. However,
the presence of aspartic acid and
glutamic acid in positions 55 and 56, respectively,
was found to occur more often in CBD cases
than in controls (79 percent vs.
41 percent; p = 0.005) (Table
3). A family of HLA-DPB1
alleles that code for a glutamic acid residue
at the 69th position in the amino
acid sequence was also found to be associated
with CBD (97 percent vs. 27 percent; p
= 0.0001) (19).
When allele-specific genotyping was conducted,
HLA-DPB1*0201 was found
to occur significantly more often in cases than
in controls (30 percent vs. 10 percent;
p = 0.05), while HLA-DPB1*0401, which does not contain a glutamic acid
residue at position 69, occurred
less often in cases than in controls (14 percent
vs. 48 percent; p = 0.001) (19). The association between CBD and HLA-DPB1Glu69 was later confirmed in a separate study that
was also conducted by Richeldi et
al. (20). They did not
reevaluate the allele-specific information
until 2000 (23). Prior
to this, Wang et al. (21)
used allele-specific DNA sequencing of HLA-DPB1 and identified important variations at
positions 8, 9, 11, 55–57, 69, and
84–87 (Table
3). This
study, consisting of 20 cases and 75 controls,
also found a strong association between
the inheritance of HLA-DPB1Glu69 and disease risk in beryllium-exposed
workers (95 percent vs. 45 percent;
odds ratio (OR) = 22.9, 95 percent confidence
interval (CI): 4.8, 108.2) (21).
Although the small sample size resulted
in large confidence intervals, haplotype
determination strongly suggested
that being homozygous for HLA-DPB1Glu69 (OR = 246.0, 95 percent CI: 38.0,
1,594.4) conferred a much greater risk
for CBD than being heterozygous (OR =
16.2, 95 percent CI: 3.1, 84.4).
Further examination of other subtypic alleles,
all containing a glutamic acid residue
at codon 69, found that persons with CBD
were more likely to have alleles characterized
by valine, histidine [or tyrosine],
and leucine codons at positions 8, 9,
and 11, respectively, rather than leucine, phenylalanine, and glycine (79 percent vs. 30 percent; p = 0.003) (21).
Furthermore, persons with CBD were
more likely to have alleles characterized
by aspartate, glutamic acid, alanine,
and valine codons at positions 84,
85, 86, and 87, respectively, rather than glycine,
glycine, proline, and methionine
(84 percent vs. 35 percent; p = 0.004)
(21). On the basis
of this information, the alleles defined
by the supratypic marker at codon 69 that
would be expected to be most closely
associated with CBD are HLA-DPB1*0601,
*0901, *1001, *1301,
and *1701 as opposed to HLA-DPB1*02012,
*02013, *02014, *02015,
*0202, and *1901 (or other alleles
containing a glutamic acid residue
at codon 69 that have not yet been reported in a beryllium exposure study, such as
HLA-DPB1*4601 and *7101).
In 2001, Wang
et al. (21, 22)
once again utilized allele-specific polymerase
chain reaction to evaluate the frequency of
HLA-DPB1 in 25 beryllium-sensitized
persons (without CBD) and to further
characterize persons with and without
CBD. Twenty of the persons with
CBD and 70 of the controls in this study had
participated in the previous study
(21). The additional
controls were beryllium-exposed workers
who had a negative beryllium lymphocyte proliferation test. When the presence or absence of
HLA-DPB1Glu69 was
evaluated, sensitized persons were
significantly more likely to carry at least one HLA-DPB1Glu69
allele in comparison with the control group (88 percent vs. 37 percent; OR
= 12.3, 95 percent CI: 3.5, 42.7;
p < 0.0001). Haplotype analysis
identified 30 percent of persons
with CBD as being homozygous for HLA-DPB1Glu69, as compared with 24 percent of the sensitized
persons and only 3 percent of the
controls (p < 0.001). When the frequency of non-HLA-DPB1*0201 alleles
was evaluated, sensitized persons were
more likely to have at least one non-HLA-DPB1*0201 allele than controls (52 percent
vs. 13 percent; p < 0.001) but
had such an allele less often than persons
with CBD (52 percent vs. 80 percent;
not significant). When the specific non-HLA-DPB1*0201
alleles were examined, HLA-DPB1*1701occurred most often in both sensitized
persons (16 percent) and persons with CBD
(30 percent) in comparison with
the control group (2 percent) (p < 0.01) (21,
22).
The results of
this last study (22)
will help in clarifying the natural
history of CBD. However, concerns about the
population under study also warrant
further evaluation and verification of
these findings. These concerns include composition
of the CBD case, sensitized, and
control groups and the small sample size.
For example, five of the sensitized persons
in the most recent study conducted
by Wang et al. (22) had
previously been analyzed as controls
(21);
10 of the beryllium-sensitized persons
did not have signs of respiratory impairment,
but none were clinically evaluated
for granulomatous lung disease; and two
of the sensitized persons in the most
recent study were not known to
have been occupationally exposed to beryllium.
Using the same
methods as Richeldi et al. (19,
20), Saltini et
al. (23) conducted a
study that analyzed the presence and
absence of specific HLA-DPB1
alleles in 22 persons with CBD, 23
persons with beryllium sensitivity (without
CBD), and 93 control samples. HLA-DPB1Glu69
was significantly associated with
persons with CBD in comparison with both the
control group and the sensitized
group. HLA-DPB1*0501 occurred
more often, though not significantly,
among the sensitized in comparison with
both persons with CBD and controls (11 percent
in the sensitized vs. 2 percent
among persons with CBD and controls). The
prevalence of HLA-DPB1*0201
was increased, also not significantly, in
the CBD cases as compared with
the controls (27 percent vs. 17 percent).
Although frequencies were not significantly
different, a number of non-HLA-DPB1*0201
alleles were also observed to appear more
often in the CBD cases than in the controls
(23). These included
HLA-DPB1*0601, HLA-DPB1*0901,
HLA-DPB1*1001, HLA-DPB1*1701, and HLA-DPB1*1901.
Rossman et al.
(24) recently published
information on the genetics of
beryllium sensitization and CBD. The study
population consisted of 137 persons
who had been referred to the Hospital of the
University of Pennsylvania for clinical
evaluation of CBD. Fifty-five of
the participants had a positive beryllium
lymphocyte proliferation test and
were designated as having beryllium hypersensitivity.
Upon clinical examination, 25 out of
55 were determined to have CBD
and 30 out of 55 were defined as having beryllium
hypersensitivity without clinical
disease (BHWCD). The control group consisted
of 82 beryllium-exposed persons. None
had positive beryllium lymphocyte
proliferation test results, although 10 had
abnormal chest radiographs. HLA-DPB1 genotyping was conducted on all of
the samples, and the frequencies of alleles
were compared across the groups
with and without disease (24).
HLA-DQB1 and HLA-DRB1
were also evaluated but not in conjunction
with HLA-DPB1, so
they will not be discussed here.
HLA-DPB1Glu69
appeared more often in persons with BHWCD
(90 percent) and persons with CBD
(84 percent) than in those without disease
(48 percent). The highest odds ratio for disease
was associated with BHWCD and HLA-DPB1Glu69
(OR = 9.9, 95 percent CI: 2.8,
35.3). When the frequency of HLA-DPB1Glu69
among persons with BHWCD was compared
with the frequency among persons with
CBD, there was no significant difference.
When specific HLA-DPB1Glu69
alleles were evaluated, none remained
significant after adjustment for
multiple comparisons.
The presence
of lysine at position 11 (HLA-DPB1Lys11)
and the presence of aspartic acid
at position 55 (HLA-DPB1Asp55)
were significantly associated with
beryllium hypersensitivity, but this
association remained significant only in the
presence of HLA-DPB1Glu69.
Furthermore, there was no difference between
the frequencies of HLA-DPB1-Glu69
-Lys11
and HLA-DPB1-Glu69 -Asp55
among persons with CBD or persons with BHWCD.
It was concluded that HLA-DPB1Glu69
was the most important epitope
in the development of beryllium hypersensitivity,
but it could not be used to predict
whether someone would develop CBD.
While all of
the studies conducted found that HLA-DPB1Glu69
is associated with CBD, they differed
in terms of the relative importance
placed on the role of the HLA-DPB1*0201
alloforms in CBD (19-24).
Furthermore, it is of interest that while
Wang et al. (22)
and Rossman et al. (24)
found a relation between HLA-DPB1Glu69
and beryllium sensitization, Saltini et al.
(23) did not
report this relation. This discrepancy might
be a result of the different methods
used to determine HLA haplotypes or differences
between the populations under study. Future
studies should formally address
the differences observed across these
studies.
The overall meaning
of the reviewed studies described in Tables
2 and 3
must be considered with some caution, because
of sample populations known to
overlap and with the potential to overlap.
For example, Stange et al. (67)
included beryllium cases previously identified
by Kreiss et al. (63,
65). Similarly, Henneberger
et al. (69) included
beryllium-exposed workers previously studied
by Kreiss et al. (66)
(Table 2).
Although the studies presented in
Table 3
appear to be independent, there is potential
for overlap across the populations
studied by Rossman et al. (24)
and Saltini et al. (23)
(Table 3).
Overlap among these studies does
not change the general interpretation of these
results with respect to the range
of prevalence and the estimates of association.
However, it could affect the generalizablity
of the results, since the estimates
of association may not be entirely statistically
independent. |
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INTERACTIONS |
Exposure to beryllium
is a requirement for developing CBD. However,
HLA-DPB1Glu69 modifies
an individual's risk of CBD. This
was demonstrated from cross-sectional surveillance
conducted at a beryllium ceramic manufacturing
facility. This study established
that particular job tasks (i.e., machining)
conferred substantially increased risk
of beryllium sensitization and disease
and that this risk was further magnified in
the presence of HLA-DPB1Glu69
(20). Five of six persons
with CBD were found to have machined
beryllium. Similarly, five of the six
CBD cases were carriers of HLA-DPB1Glu69.
When the presence of HLA-DPB1Glu69
and a history of machining was evaluated, four
of the 16 machinists who were HLA-DPB1Glu69-positive
had CBD. In logistic regression analysis,
the odds ratio for disease from machining
alone was estimated to be 10.1 (95 percent CI:
1.1, 93.7); the odds ratio for disease
from the genetic marker was estimated
to be 11.8 (95 percent CI: 1.3, 108.8). On the
basis of these results, the investigators
reported that genetic and job factors
had at least an additive effect for risk of
beryllium disease in the industrial environment.
We have included an additional summary
of disease prevalence by HLA-DPB1Glu69
and machining job history for this study
(Table 4).
While it was not possible to estimate
odds ratios referenced to the lowest risk
group because there were no observed cases,
it is clear when looking at the prevalence
estimates and confidence intervals that
the presence of both HLA-DPB1Glu69
and a machining job history account
for a remarkable proportion of cases (Table
4). Utilizing
a series of 2 x 2 tables extracted from a
2 x 4 table, Saltini et al. (23)
evaluated the risk of sensitization or CBD
in the presence of either one or a combination
of the genes HLA-DPB1Glu69,
tumor necrosis factor-
(TNF-)-308*2,
and HLA-DRArg74.
HLA-DRArg74
was independently associated with sensitization
(OR = 4.0, 95 percent CI: 1.5, 10.1),
while HLA-DPB1Glu69
was found to be associated with
CBD (OR = 3.7, 95 percent CI: 1.4, 10.0)
but not with sensitization. TNF--308*2
was associated with a positive
beryllium lymphocyte proliferation test result
(OR = 7.8, 95 percent CI: 3.2, 19.1),
regardless of disease status. When
gene combinations were evaluated, the risk
of sensitization was increased
in the presence of both TNF--308*2
and HLA-DRArg74.
The risk of sensitization was also reportedly
higher among persons who were HLA-DPB1Glu69-positive
but HLA-DRArg74-negative
(23). However,
scrutiny of the tabulated data revealed that
sensitization was associated with
HLA-DRArg74-positive,
HLA-DPB1Glu69-negative
persons. TNF--308*2
was independently associated with CBD (OR
= 4.0; p < 0.05), but in the
presence of HLA-DPB1Glu69,
this risk was even greater (OR
= 9.7; p < 0.05). Interestingly,
neither HLA-DPB1Glu69
alone nor HLA-DRArg74
alone, nor both in combination,
was associated with CBD. This may have been
an effect of the small sample sizes
created in the construction of
the 2 x 4 tables. The extent to which these
analyses may have been affected
by the use of different laboratory methods
to determine the presence of the TNF--308*2,
HLA-DPB1Glu69,
and HLA-DRArg74 alleles
is unknown. However, these results demonstrate
that genes other than HLA-DPB1Glu69
or genes acting in conjunction with
HLA-DPB1Glu69 may
play a role in the risks of both sensitization
and disease. |
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LABORATORY
TESTS |
Neither
commercial kit manufacturers nor laboratories
approved by the Clinical Laboratory
Improvement Advisory Committee are currently
offering HLA-DPB1Glu69
genetic testing. Rather, research laboratory
methods have been used to evaluate the presence
and absence of HLA-DPB1
sequence motifs and alleles in persons with
and without CBD. Heteroduplex analysis,
allele-specific polymerase chain
reaction, restriction fragment length polymorphism,
oligonucleotide hybridization, and
direct and allele-specific sequencing of
polymerase chain reaction products have
all been used to examine HLA-DPB1
variants (19-24). Each
method has strengths and limitations.
Allele-specific sequencing gives the least ambiguous
and most complete analysis, but it is
also the most labor intensive. Heteroduplex,
allele-specific polymerase chain reaction and
restriction fragment length polymorphism
analysis may only detect a limited
number of alleles. Similarly, oligonucleotide
hybridization might not detect all
alleles, but additionally this method potentially
has a higher rate of false positives and
false negatives. |
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POPULATION
TESTING |
Ethical issues
surrounding the use of genetic information
as a screening tool in the workplace
include employment discrimination and
insurance discrimination (76).
These concerns have become particularly
relevant given that current, former, and prospective
beryllium-industry workers are being
genetically characterized in research
studies for HLA-DPB1Glu69.
In addition, while the odds associated
with CBD in the presence of HLA-DPB1
Glu69 are quite high,
because the population prevalence of HLA-DPB1Glu69
is also high, the cross-sectional predictive
value is relatively low (77).
The positive
predictive value has typically been defined
as the probability that an individual
will have a disease given that
the diagnostic test is positive. It is a function
of test sensitivity, test specificity,
and disease prevalence (78).
For example, using the odds ratio of
23 obtained by Wang et al. (21),
a population prevalence of 40 percent for
HLA-DPB1Glu69,
and a prevalence of disease among beryllium
workers of 5 percent, the positive
predictive value is only 11.7 percent (77).
Thus, HLA-DPB1 Glu69
does not fulfill the screening criteria outlined
by Khoury et al. (79).
The positive
predictive value can also be defined longitudinally.
This definition is based on disease
incidence rather than on prevalence,
and it can be interpreted as the probability
that an exposed individual will
develop the disease subsequent to screening,
given that he or she has a positive screening
test (78).
While prospective employees might be able
to use longitudinal risk information,
the disease incidence data required to estimate
this risk are not yet available. The
utility of risk information for
people already exposed to beryllium is even
less clear, since CBD risk remains
even after exposure cessation. Currently,
it is not known whether workers can
lower their risk by leaving the
industry or whether genetic characterization
of sensitized or CBD cases has
prognostic implications. Continued research
will be important in the identification
of other high-risk genes, gene-exposure
interactions, and gene-gene interactions that
may improve personal risk assessment
and help in determining whether
specific genes or alleles are more valuable
as prognostic indicators. Regardless,
prospective, current, and former beryllium
workers must be educated about the risks
and benefits associated with obtaining
their genetic screening results. |
|
|
NOTES |
Reprint requests
to Dr. Erin C. McCanlies, National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health, MS-L4020,
1095 Willowdale Road, Morgantown,
WV 26505-2888 (e-mail: eim4@cdc.gov)
|
|
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