ERS Publications -

United States Department of Agriculture - Economic Research Service - The Economics of Food, Farming, Natural Resources, and Rural America...

search our site

			home > publications
	a-z title list: a

Adoption of Agricultural Production Practices: Lessons Learned from the U.S. Department of Agriculture Area Studies Project: The U.S. Department of Agriculture Area Studies Project was designed to characterize the extent of adoption of nutrient, pest, soil, and water management practices and to assess the factors that affect adoption for a wide range of management strategies across different natural resource regions. The project entailed the administration of a detailed field-level survey to farmers in 12 watersheds in the Nation to gather data on agricultural practices, input use, and natural resource characteristics associated with farming activities. The data were analyzed by the Economic Research Service using a consistent methodological approach with the full set of data to study the constraints associated with the adoption of micronutrients, N-testing, split nitrogen applications, green manure, biological pest controls, pest-resistant varieties, crop rotations, pheromones, scouting, conservation tillage, contour farming, strip cropping, grassed waterways, and irrigation. In addition to the combined-areas analyses, selected areas were chosen for analysis to illustrate the difference in results between aggregate and area-specific models. The unique sample design for the survey was used to explore the importance of field-level natural resource data for evaluating adoption at both the aggregate and watershed levels. Further analyses of the data illustrated how the adoption of specific management practices affects chemical use and crop yields.
ERSAER792 116 pp Published: January 2001 Released: February 14, 2001 $33.00
Adoption of Bioengineered Crops: This report uses USDA survey data to examine the extent to which US farmers have adopted bioengineered crops, factors affecting adoption of these crops, and the impacts of bioengineered crops on input use and farm-level net returns.
ERSAER810 67 pp Published: May 2002 Released: June 28, 2002 $27.00
Agri-Environmental Policy at the Crossroads: Guideposts on a Changing Landscape: Agri-environmental policy is at a crossroads. Over the past 20 years, a wide range of policies addressing the environmental implications of agricultural production have been implemented at the Federal level. Those policies have played an important role in reducing soil erosion, protecting and restoring wetlands, and creating wildlife habitat. However, emerging agri-environmental issues, evolution of farm income support policies, and limits imposed by trade agreements may point toward a rethinking of agri-environmental policy. This report identifies the types of policy tools available and the design features that have improved the effectiveness of current programs. It provides an indepth analysis of one policy tool that may be an important component of a future policy package—agri-environmental payments. The analysis focuses on issues and tradeoffs that policymakers would face in designing a program of agri-environmental payments.
ersaer794 72 pp Published: January 2001 Released: January 25, 2001 $27.00
Agricultural Adaptation to Climate Change: Issues of Longrun Sustainability: Early evaluations of the effects of climate change on agriculture, which did not account for economic adjustments or consider the broader economic and environmental implications of such changes, overestimated the negative effects of climate change. This report, which highlights ERS research, focuses on economic adaptation and concludes there is considerably more sectoral flexibility and adaptability than found in other analyses. The report frames the discussion of economic adjustments within the context of global agricultural environmental sustainability.
ERSAER740 68 pp Published: June 1996 Released: June 1, 1996 $27.00
Agricultural Baseline Projections to 2005, Reflecting the 1996 Farm Act: This report provides long-run baseline projections for the agricultural sector through 2005 that incorporate provisions of the Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996 (1996 Farm Act). The baseline assumes that the new farm legislation remains in effect through 2005. Projections cover agricultural commodities, agricultural trade, and aggregate indicators of the sector, such as farm income and food prices. Generally favorable global economic growth is projected in the baseline which, combined with liberalized trade associated with both the GATT agreement and unilateral policy reforms, supports strong growth in global trade and U.S. agricultural exports. Greater market orientation in the domestic agricultural sector under the 1996 Farm Act puts U.S. farmers in a favorable position for competing in the global marketplace. A tightening of the balance between productive capacity and demands results in rising nominal market prices, increasing farm income, and stability in the financial condition of the agricultural sector. However, management of risk will be important for farmers. With the reduced role of the Government in the sector under the 1996 Farm Act, farmers in general face greater risk of income volatility due to price variation, reflecting market price variability more directly. Consumer food prices are projected to continue a long term trend of rising less than the general inflation rate. The baseline projections presented are one representative scenario for the agricultural sector through the middle of the next decade, assuming no shocks and based on specific assumptions regarding macroeconomic conditions, policy, weather, and international developments. As such, the baseline provides a point of departure for discussion of alternative farm sector outcomes that could result under different assumptions. The projections in this report were prepared in October through December 1996, reflecting a composite of model results and judgmental analysis.
ERSWAOB971 Released: April 23, 1997
Agricultural Biotechnology: An Economic Perspective: The development of agricultural biotechnology offers the opportunity to increase crop production, lower farming costs, improve food quality and safety, and enhance environmental quality. This report describes the economic, scientific, and social factors that will influence the future of biotechnology in agriculture. The supply of biotechnology innovations and products will be affected by public policies and by expectations of producer and consumer demand for the products. The demand for biotechnology by farmers and food processors is derived from the expected profitability of using the technology as an input to production. Ultimately, the use of biotechnology in the farm sector will depend on consumer demand for the biotechnology-derived agricultural product.
ERSAER687 64 pp Published: May 1994 Released: May 1, 1994 $27.00
Agricultural Exports From Grain and Soybean Producing States Rose in Fiscal 2002: Fiscal 2002 U.S. agricultural exports rose slightly from 2001. Most of the gain occurred in soybeans, feed grains, and wheat, as prices of those commodities increased. As a result, soybean and feed grain or wheat exporting States, such as Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, and Indiana, increased exports in 2002. North Dakota particularly benefited from increased wheat exports. California, which produces and exports primarily fruits, vegetables, tree nuts, and other agricultural products had slightly reduced exports in 2002, even though it remained by far the largest agricultural exporting State.
ERSFAU7801 Published: June 2003 Released: June 30, 2003
Agricultural Income and Finance Outlook: Provides historical estimates and forecasts of farm sector financial information that allows readers to gauge the financial health of the nation's farmers and ranchers.
Released: November 5, 2003
Agricultural Income and Finance Outlook - September 2001: Current financial forecasts indicate U.S. net cash farm income could reach $60.8 billion this year, eclipsing 1993's previous record. Crop prices have recovered somewhat from last year and the livestock sector is particularly strong. Sector wealth continues to increase. New land-value data show farm asset values rising faster than farm debt, resulting in 2001 farm equity up almost $31 billion from last year. For commodities, low crop prices have not been enough to offset higher input costs so returns to crops are still down. For livestock, higher market prices are offsetting lower feed prices resulting in improvement in the bottom lines of livestock producers. This electronic report describes the situation and outlook for farm business, farm household, and sector income, and provides analysis of farm assets, farm debt, and cost of production. Includes extensive appendix tables.
ERSAIS77 Published: September 2001 Released: November 1, 2001
Agricultural Outlook: Agricultural Outlook addresses a broad spectrum of agriculture-related issues. AO provides short-term outlook articles on commodity markets and food prices. It also presents in-depth analyses of U.S. agricultural policy, trade and export markets, food production and safety, the environment, the rural economy, and farm financial institutions. Each issue includes 30 pages of data on individual commodities, the general economy, U.S. farm trade, farm income, production expenses, input use, prices received and paid by farmers, per capita food consumption, and related issues.
ERSSUBAG0 10 issues Published: April 2001 Released: November 21, 2002
Agricultural Outlook Forum 2001: Attend USDA's 77th outlook forum for forecasts of farm prospects and insight on developments affecting the farm economy. The Latest Farm Prospects for 2001 and beyond will be debated by leading analysts. The commodity outlook and industry-changing trends will be covered in breakout sessions and five commodity luncheons. USDA will release new 10-year projections at the Forum. Preview the Policy Debate. Future farm policy will be a hot topic during 2001. The Forum will open with high-level panels on the next farm bill and world trade talks. Focus sessions during the two-day program will preview key issues on the farm policy agenda. Network during receptions, breaks and meal functions. Forum 2000 was attended by over 1,300 people representing every facet of U.S. and world agriculture.
Published: February 2001 Released: February 23, 2001
Agricultural Policy Reform in the WTO--The Road Ahead: Agricultural trade barriers and producer subsidies inflict real costs, both on the countries that use these policies and on their trade partners. This report quantifies the costs of global agricultural distortions and the potential benefits of their full elimination. The report concludes that eliminating global agricultural policy distortions would result in an annual world welfare gain of $56 billion. The report also analyzes the effects on U.S. and world agriculture if only partial reform is achieved in liberalizing tariffs, tariff-rate quotas (limits on imported goods), domestic support, and export subsidies.
ERSAER802 120 pp Published: May 2001 Released: June 26, 2001 $33.00
Agricultural Productivity and Efficiency in Russia and Ukraine: Building on a Decade of Reform: The purpose of the report is to determine the potential for increased grain exports from Russia and Ukraine. The report reviews the evidence on the productivity of agricultural production, and explores some of the causes of inefficient practices. Results of the analyses show that implementing institutional reforms would allow productivity and efficiency in the agricultural sector to improve. Consequently, completing the reform program could allow Russia and Ukraine to emerge as significant grain exporters in the future.
ERSAER813 33 pp Published: July 2002 Released: July 29, 2002 $25.50
Agricultural Productivity in the United States: Increased productivity is a key to a healthy and thriving economy. Consequently, the trend in productivity, economywide, is one of the most closely watched of our common economic performance indicators. Agriculture, in particular, has been a very successful sector of the U.S. economy in terms of productivity growth. The U.S. farm sector has provided an abundance of output while using inputs efficiently. Agricultural productivity growth has been an important source of U.S. economic growth throughout the century, but the years since 1940 have seen an even faster growth in agricultural productivity. The annual average increase in productivity from 1948 to 1994 was 1.94 percent. This reflects an annual growth in output of 1.88 percent per year and an actual decline in agricultural inputs of 0.06 percent per year. This report describes changes in U.S. agricultural productivity, and its output and input components, for 1948-94. The report also discusses factors that have affected productivity trends and provides detailed, technical information about the USDA system for calculating productivity.
ERSAIB740 32 pp Published: January 1998 Released: January 1, 1998 $25.50
Agricultural Research and Development, Agricultural Productivity, and Food Security: This Food Security briefing paper describes ERS research on sustained growth in agricultural productivity and the role of research and development on world's ability to produce more food for the growing population.
ERSAIB765-10 2 pp Published: June 2001 Released: June 13, 2001 $8.00
Agricultural Research and Development: Public and Private Investments Under Alternative Markets and Institutions: Empirical studies indicate high economic returns from the public's investment in agricultural research. Yet, even as society is placing broader demands on the research system, taxpayer support for public agricultural research is unlikely to increase. Stronger ownership rights for intellectual property have increased incentives for private investment in agricultural research, but key elements still require direct public support. The USDA is developing new mechanisms to build a more effective public-private partnership in agricultural research.
ERSAER735 88 pp Published: May 1996 Released: May 1, 1996 $29.50
Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 1994: This report identifies trends in land, water, and commercial input use, reports on the condition of natural resources used in the agricultural sector, and describes and assesses public policies that affect conservation and environmental quality in agriculture. Combining data and information, this report examines the complex connections among farming practices, conservation, and the environment, which are increasingly important components in U.S. agriculture and farm policy. The report examines the economic factors that affect resource use and, when data permit, estimates the costs and benefits (to farmers, consumers, and the government) of meeting conservation and environmental goals. The report takes stock of how natural resources (land and water) and commercial inputs (energy, nutrients, pesticides, and machinery) are used in the agricultural sector; shows how they contribute to environmental quality; and links use and quality to technological change, production practices, and farm programs.

Back to AREI home.

ERSAH705 216 pp Published: December 1994 Released: December 1, 1994 $47.00
Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 1996-97: This report identifies trends in land, water, and commercial input use, reports on the condition of natural resources used in the agricultural sector, and describes and assesses public policies that affect conservation and environmental quality in agriculture. Combining data and information, this report examines the complex connections among farming practices, conservation, and the environment, which are increasingly important components in U.S. agriculture and farm policy. The report also examines the economic factors that affect resource use and, when data permit, estimates the costs and benefits (to farmers, consumers, and the government) of meeting conservation and environmental goals. The report takes stock of how natural resources (land and water) and commercial inputs (energy, nutrients, pesticides, and machinery) are used in the agricultural sector; shows how they contribute to environmental quality; and links use and quality to technological change, production practices, and farm programs.

Back to AREI home.

ERSAH712 356 pp Published: July 1997 Released: July 1, 1997 $62.00
Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2000: This report identifies trends in land, water, and biological resources and commercial input use, reports on the condition of natural resources used in the agricultural sector, and describes and assesses public policies that affect conservation and environmental quality in agriculture. Combining data and information, this report examines the complex connections among farming practices, conservation, and the environment, which are increasingly important components in U.S. agriculture and farm policy. The report also examines the economic factors that affect resource use and estimates costs and benefits to farmers, consumers, and the government of meeting conservation and environmental goals. The report takes stock of how natural resources (land, water and biological resources) and commercial inputs (energy, nutrients, pesticides, seed and machinery) are used in the agricultural sector; shows how they contribute to environmental quality; and links use and quality to technological change, production practices, and farm programs.
Published: September 2000 Released: September 5, 2000
Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2003: This report identifies trends in land, water, and biological resources and commercial input use, reports on the condition of natural resources used in the agricultural sector, and describes and assesses public policies that affect conservation and environmental quality in agriculture. Combining data and information, this report examines the complex connections among farming practices, conservation, and the environment, which are increasingly important components in U.S. agriculture and farm policy. The report also examines the economic factors that affect resource use and estimates costs and benefits to farmers, consumers, and the government of meeting conservation and environmental goals. The report takes stock of how natural resources (land, water and biological resources) and commercial inputs (nutrients, pesticides, seed and machinery) are used in the agricultural sector; shows how they contribute to environmental quality; and links use and quality to technological change, production practices, and farm programs. The report is available only in electronic format.

Back to AREI home.

ERSAH722 Published: February 2003 Released: February 14, 2003
Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Agricultural Production Management Overview: Chapter provides an overview of the chapters in the section on production management, including nutrient, pest, and soil management.
AH722 Published: February 2003 Released: February 21, 2003
Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Agricultural Productivity: Productivity, which measures the increase in outputs not accounted for by the growth in production inputs, is a closely watched economic performance indicator because of its contribution to a healthy and thriving economy. Agriculture, in particular, has been a very successful sector of the U.S. economy in terms of productivity growth. U.S. agricultural output grew at an average rate of 1.89 percent annually from 1948 to 1996, entirely due to productivity growth. In contrast, output growth in other sectors of the economy was largely from increased use of inputs. Productivity growth in agriculture can be attributed to investments in research and development (R&D;), extension, education, and infrastructure.
AH722 Published: November 2000 Released: February 14, 2003
Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Agricultural Research and Development: Public and private efforts in research and technology development have been the foundation of impressive productivity gains in the agricultural sector. Over the past few decades, there have been many changes affecting the research system. Advances in the biological sciences, such as recombinant DNA technology, have expanded the opportunities to develop new technology for both the public and private sectors. Legislation that strengthened intellectual property protection for biological inventions and allowed the patenting and licensing of public-sector innovations has further changed the research landscape. These new institutional arrangements have fostered public and private collaboration in research. (Note: The use of commercial or trade names does not imply approval by USDA or ERS.)
AH722 Published: February 2002 Released: February 14, 2003
Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Appendix: A variety of data sources used in Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators are described here, including the Agricultural Land Values Survey (ALVS), Agricultural Resource Management Study (ARMS), Area Studies, Census of Agriculture, Chemical Use Surveys, Conservation Compliance Status Review, Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) contract data, Cropping Practices Surveys (CPS), Crop Residue Management (CRM) Survey, Current Research Information System (CRIS), Farm Costs and Returns Survey (FCRS), Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey (FRIS), Farm Real Estate Tax Survey, Foreign Ownership of U.S. Agricultural Land, NASS Agricultural Survey (NAS), and National Resources Inventory (NRI).
AH722 Published: September 2000 Released: February 14, 2003
Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Biological Resources and Agriculture: Biological resources refer to the living landscape—the plants, animals, and other aspects of nature—and are important to society for the various services they provide, as well as problems they may create. Biological resources are grouped into those that affect agriculture, such as cultivated plants, pollinators, and pests; those that are sources of scientific inputs, such as agricultural plant varieties (and their wild relatives) that provide genetic resources; and those that provide natural goods and services, such as wildlife, fish, and scenic beauty. Traditional measures of agricultural productivity do not capture all the benefits of preserving biological resources on private lands. Because of this, private landowners may not have adequate incentives to consider the full range of goods and services produced by the biological resources under their control. In particular, it may not be profitable for farmers to adopt practices that provide the quantity and quality of wildlife habitat and genetic diversity desired by the American public. Similarly, farmers may not consider the full spectrum of indirect benefits when they make land use decisions.
AH722 Published: November 2001 Released: February 14, 2003
Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Compliance Provisions for Soil and Wetland Conservation: Compliance provisions, first introduced in the 1985 Food Security Act, require certain resource conservation activities in return for benefits from selected Federal agricultural programs. Producers can lose Federal farm program benefits if they produce crops on highly erodible land without applying an approved conservation system or if they convert wetlands for agricultural production. In 1997, approved conservation systems were in effect for more than 95 percent of highly erodible land subject to conservation compliance, reducing erosion by two-thirds on such lands. More than 50 percent of all conservation systems involve conservation cropping sequences, conservation tillage, crop residue use, or a combination of these practices. Given reasonable assumptions about future commodity prices and production costs, compliance mechanisms may also be keeping 6-10 million acres of wetlands and highly erodible land out of crop production.
AH722 Published: August 2000 Released: February 14, 2003
Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Crop Genetic Resources: In addition to wildlife, biological resources include the genetic resources used to produce agricultural crops. The relationship between agricultural production and biological resources is two directional. While agricultural production may affect wild biological resources, it also depends on crop and livestock genetic resources, some of which are found in the wild. Crop genetic resources are used by breeders to develop new and improved varieties for farmers. This process of genetic enhancement has produced substantial economic benefits. A strong genetic resource base is important for several reasons, among them the fact that a lack of genetic diversity in farmers' fields, if severe, may increase the risk of pest or disease epidemics. Genetic resources are constantly required as inputs into the continuing process of enhancement through selective breeding (including genetic engineering). Therefore, conservation of crop genetic resources is needed, given their critical role in agricultural production.
AH722 Published: April 2001 Released: February 14, 2003
Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Farm Real Estate Values, Rents, and Taxes: Farm real estate values and cash rents are important indicators of the financial condition of the farm sector. Farm real estate values are influenced by net returns from agricultural production, capital investment in farm structures, interest rates, government commodity programs, property taxes, and nonfarm demands for farmland. Values have been steadily rising since 1987. By early 1995, the average value of U.S. farm real estate exceeded the previous high set in 1982 before values began to decline. The most recent survey information indicates that average value continued to increase throughout calendar 2000; cash rents also were generally stable to higher for the 2001 crop year.
AH722 Published: October 2001 Released: October 11, 2001
Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Irrigation Water Management: Chapter provides detail on water use and irrigation management.
AH722 Published: February 2003 Released: February 21, 2003
Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Land Ownership and Farm Structure: Although the Federal Government once held most U.S. land, 60 percent (1.4 billion acres) is now privately owned. Virtually all farmland is privately owned. Leased land has assumed an increasing share of farm operations as farm numbers decline and average farm size increases. Small family farms (sales less than $250,000) account for 92 percent of all farms, and 61 percent of the land operated, but only 32 percent of production.
AH722 Published: July 2002 Released: February 14, 2003
Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Land Retirement: The Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) remains the largest U.S. agricultural land conservation program. Re-authorized by the 1996 Farm Act at a time when commodity prices were high, consideration was given to early release of some contracts, and more careful targeting of enrolled acreage to maximize environmental benefits. The emphasis on targeting for environmental benefits continues, as the criteria for enrollment have evolved and other forms of targeting, such as the continuous CRP signup and Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program, have emerged. As the CRP approaches its statutory 36.4-million-acre limit, some have proposed increasing the acreage cap, which could slightly shift the geographic distribution of enrollment. The Wetlands Reserve Program (WRP), a much smaller related land-retirement program, is also approaching its statutory cap.
AH722 Published: December 2000 Released: February 14, 2003
Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Land Use: The three predominant uses of land in the contiguous 48 States are grassland pasture and range, forest-use land, and cropland, in that order. Total cropland (used for crops, used for pasture, and idled) has trended down slightly since the late 1960s. Greater variation has occurred in cropland used for crops. Changes in 1996 farm policy reduced the impact of farm programs on cropland used for crops. Weather, such as drought or heavy rains, can strongly influence the acreage of cropland used for crops from year to year. Programs aimed at farmland preservation have received increasing attention in recent years.
AH722 Published: March 2001 Released: February 14, 2003 $25.50
Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Nutrient Use and Management: Nutrients, which need to be applied to most fields to maintain high crop yields, have been associated with air and water quality impairment. While exceptions occur in some areas of the country, most nutrients applied in the U.S. are from commercial fertilizers. Commercial fertilizer use exceeded 20 million nutrient tons per year since 1990 and rose to over 22 million tons during the 1996-98 fertilizer years because of increased area planted. Fertilizer prices paid by farmers were stable from 1989 to 1993, rose dramatically in 1994 and 1995, and, for most nitrogen products, declined to below 1993 levels between 1996 and 1999. Many improved practices are available to reduce nutrient losses to the environment, with varying degrees of adoption by farmers. To improve nutrient management, farmers need to understand the link between agricultural production and the environment, and public policies need to encourage farmers to adopt resource-conserving practices.
AH722 Published: September 2000 Released: February 14, 2003
Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Overview of Conservation Programs and Expenditures: A range of policy tools or instruments exist to encourage or compel adoption of conservation and environmental practices. Federal government programs for natural resources and the environment based on these policy tools have evolved and expanded over the years. USDA has historically focused on some of these instruments in conservation programs intended to benefit natural resources and the environment affected by agriculture, and ignored others. Older programs discontinued in the Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996 phased down as new programs were implemented, while other programs extended by the Act continued. In 1998, USDA's conservation program expenditures represented a quarter of total Federal conservation and environmental spending. Over half of USDA's conservation expenditures were for rental or easement payments on lands in conserving uses, while expenditures for technical assistance and cost-sharing were a third of the total.
AH722 Published: August 2000 Released: February 14, 2003
Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Pest Management Practices: Insects, disease, and weeds cause significant yield and quality losses to U.S. crops. Pesticides, one option to combat pest damage, have been one of the fastest growing agricultural production inputs in the post-World War II era, and have contributed to the high productivity of U.S. agriculture. Herbicides and insecticides account for most pesticide use, but the recent increase in pounds of pesticide used is mostly for fungicides and other pesticide products applied to high-value crops. Pesticide expenses have increased from 4 to 5 percent of total production expenses during the 1990's. Many scientists recommend greater use of biological and cultural pest management methods. Major innovations have been the development of genetically engineered herbicide-tolerant varieties, which allow more effective use of herbicides, and plant pesticides, which reduce the need for chemical applications. Government programs to encourage the development and use of biological and cultural methods include areawide pest management, integrated pest management (IPM), national organic standards, and regulatory streamlining for biological pest control agents.
AH722 Published: September 2000 Released: September 6, 2000
Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Soil Managment and Conservation: Crop production depends largely on soil and is affected greatly by the quality of that soil. Soil quality also plays a role in the environmental effects of crop production. Traditional measures of soil quality include land capability and suitability, prime land, productivity, erodibility, and vulnerability to leach pesticides and nitrates. More comprehensive measures are needed that consider physical, chemical, and biological properties, and also economic factors. Soil management involves actions by land managers that affect soil quality and productivity and alter soil's effects on environmental quality. Examples of these actions include land use or cropping pattern, type and extent of tillage, amount of cover or residue left on the soil, and use of conservation buffers and structures.
AH722 Published: February 2002 Released: February 14, 2003
Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Sustainable Resource Use and Global Food Security: The notion of food security has expanded in recent years from a relatively static focus on food availability to one that recognizes longer-term concerns about access and resources. At the same time, economists have been working to incorporate changes in the quality and quantity of natural and other resources into measures of national income and wealth. A review of trends in global and regional food production, population growth, and resource use helps illustrate the relationship between sustainable resource use and food security, and indicates the continuing importance of the role that U.S. agriculture will play in meeting these goals in the 21st century.
AH722 Published: September 2000 Released: February 14, 2003
Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Water Quality Impacts of Agriculture: Agricultural production releases residuals that may degrade the quality of the Nation's water resources and impose costs on water users. The extent and magnitude of this degradation is difficult to assess because of its nonpoint nature. However, agriculture is the leading source of remaining impairments in the Nation.s rivers and lakes and a major source of impairments to estuaries.
AH722 Published: August 2000 Released: August 30, 2000
Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Water Quality Programs: Federal and State governments both have developed several approaches for protecting water quality. These approaches use a variety of incentive mechanisms for reducing pollution discharges. Pollution from factories and other point sources is controlled through regulations and penalties. In contrast, programs for reducing pollution from agriculture and other nonpoint sources rely most heavily on voluntary approaches providing education, technical, and cost-sharing assistance.
AH722 Published: August 2000 Released: February 14, 2003
Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Water Use and Pricing in Agriculture: Irrigated agriculture remains the dominant use of fresh water in the United States, although irrigation’s share of total consumptive use is declining. National irrigated cropland area has expanded over 40 percent since 1969, while field water application rates have declined about 20 percent. The total quantity of irrigation water applied increased about 15 percent since 1969. Nationally, variable irrigation water costs for groundwater averaged $32 per acre and off-farm surface water about $41 per acre. Neither reflects the full costs of water; onfarm well and equipment costs can be substantial for groundwater access, while infrastructure costs are often subsidized for publicly developed, off-farm surface water.
AH722 Published: April 2002 Released: February 14, 2003
Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Wetlands Programs: Wetlands are important to the Nation's environment. Wetlands can store floodwater, trap nutrients and sediment, help recharge ground water, provide habitat for fish and wildlife, and buffer shorelines from wave damage. Wetlands also provide outdoor recreation, produce timber, provide grazing for livestock, and support educational and scientific activities. Despite these public values, conserving land as wetland forecloses more intensive economic uses for landowners. The current 124 million acres of wetlands in the continental United States is 55 percent of the original extent, but the rate of wetland loss has greatly diminished. A variety of policy instruments have been used in wetland programs to make progress toward the national goal of eventual net gains in wetlands.
AH722 Published: August 2000 Released: February 14, 2003
Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Wildlife Resources Conservation: U.S. agriculture is well positioned to play a major role in protecting and enhancing the nation's wildlife. Wildlife in the U.S is dependent on the considerable land and water resources under the control of agriculture. At the same time, agriculture is one of the most competitive sectors in the U.S., and economic tradeoffs can make it difficult for farmers, on their own, to support wildlife conservation efforts requiring them to adopt more wildlife-friendly production techniques or directly allocate additional land and water resources to wildlife. Besides the opportunity costs associated with shifting resource use or changing production techniques, the public goods and common property nature of wildlife can also affect a farmers decision to protect wildlife found on their land. However, the experiences of USDA conservation programs demonstrate that farmers are willing to voluntarily shift additional land and water resources into habitat, provided they are compensated.
AH722 Published: April 2001 Released: February 14, 2003
Agricultural Statistics: A comprehensive statistical report (approximately 500 pages) containing current and historical agricultural data, revised annually. Statistics cover grain and feed; cotton, tobacco, sugar crops, and honey; oilseeds, fats, and oils, vegetables and melons; fruits, tree nuts, and horticultural specialties; hay, seeds and minor field crops, cattle, hogs, and sheep; dairy and poultry statistics; farm resources, income, and expenses, taxes, insurance, credit and cooperatives; stabilization and price-support programs; consumption; fertilizers and pesticides, and more.
NASSZAG99 Released: April 1, 1999 $28.00
Agriculture and Ecosystem Restoration in South Florida: Assessing Trade-offs from Water-Retention Development in the Everglades Agricultural Area: The Florida Everglades is widely acclaimed as one of the world's most productive wetland ecosystems. However, decades of land and water development, some of it for agriculture, have seriously degraded native wildlife communities. Agricultural production decisions have contributed to the loss of some ecosystem functions and reduced environmental quality. Policies to restore the Everglades environment will affect the profitability of the farming sector in Florida. Considerable attention has focused on the retention of wet-season water flows in the northern watershed that is currently drained to meet urban and agricultural needs. In this study, a dynamic model of agricultural production, soil loss, and water retention in the Everglades Agricultural Area was developed to assess agricultural impacts under alternative water policy and land acquisition scenarios.
eejs0108 Published: February 2001 Released: February 1, 2001
Agriculture and European Union Enlargement: This report documents the modeling framework (European Simulation Model, ESIM) used to analyze the 1992 CAP reform and discusses possible effects of EU enlargement. Potential accession of a number of eastern and central European countries into the European Union (EU) seems destined to lead to further reforms of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). The financial costs of absorbing these countries may be extreme.
ERSTB1865 60 pp Published: February 1998 Released: February 1, 1998 $27.00
Agriculture Economy Improves in 2003: The financial condition of U.S. farmers and other agricultural stakeholders is expected to improve in 2003.
Published: October 2003 Released: October 15, 2003
Agriculture in Brazil and Argentina: Developments and Prospects for Major Field Crops: This report identifies key factors underlying the agricultural productivity growth and enhanced international competitiveness of Brazil and Argentina in the past decade. Economic and policy reforms, infrastructure development, and enhanced use of agricultural inputs that drove output growth during the 1990s are discussed. This report also compares Brazilian, Argentine, and U.S. soybean production costs and evaluates the combined impact of production, marketing, and transportation costs on the overall export competitiveness of each country's soybean producers. Finally, the outlook for continued growth in output and exports of key commodities is assessed.
ERSWRS013 85 pp Published: December 2001 Released: January 9, 2002 $29.50
Agriculture in the WTO International Agriculture and Trade Report.: The Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations continued the process of reducing trade barriers achieved in seven previous rounds of negotiations. Among the Uruguay Round's most significant accomplishments were the adoption of new rules governing agricultural trade policy, the establishment of disciplines on the use of sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures, and agreement on a new process for settling trade disputes. Articles in this issue cover WTO export subsidy commitments, sanitary and phytosanitary measures, biotechnology, and more.
ERSWRS984 55 pp Released: December 1, 1998 $16.00
Aiming for Targets, Saving on Arrows: Insights from Two USDA Food Assistance Programs: The article describes four types of targeting decisions that are made in either the design or the administration of a food assistance program. It summarizes recent ERS research that examined benefits targeting (providing greater program benefits to households that have the lowest incomes) and operational targeting (low administrative and food procurement expenses). One study found that WIC cost-containment practices in six States were relatively inexpensive to administer and reduced food costs with few adverse impacts on WIC participants. Another study examined the effects of a reduction in a USDA subsidy for the meals that are generally served to higher income children (Tier 2 meals) in the Child and Adult Care Food Program. The subsidy reduction targeted program benefits more intensively on low-income children, as designed.
Published: June 2003 Released: June 20, 2003
Amber Waves, April 2003: Amber Waves presents the broad scope of ERS' research and analysis. The magazine covers the economics of agriculture, food and nutrition, the food industry, trade, rural America, and farm-related environmental topics. Available on the Internet and in print, Amber Waves is issued in print five times a year (February, April, June, September, and November). The Internet edition, or "e-zine," will change as new material is added between scheduled issues.
Published: April 2003 Released: April 30, 2003 $49.95/year
Amber Waves, April 2004: Amber Waves presents the broad scope of ERS' research and analysis. The magazine covers the economics of agriculture, food and nutrition, the food industry, trade, rural America, and farm-related environmental topics. Available on the Internet and in print, Amber Waves is issued in print five times a year (February, April, June, September, and November). The Internet edition, or "e-zine," includes links to web-only resources.
Published: April 2004 Released: April 1, 2004 $49.95/year
Amber Waves, February 2003: Amber Waves is a new magazine that presents a window into the broad scope of ERS' research and analysis. The magazine covers the economics of agriculture, food and nutrition, the food industry, trade, rural America, and farm-related environmental topics. Available on the Internet and in print, it will appear five times a year (in February, April, June, September, and November). The Internet edition or ""e-zine"" will change as new material is added between scheduled issues.
Published: February 2003 Released: February 20, 2003 $49.95/year
Amber Waves, February 2004: Amber Waves presents the broad scope of ERS' research and analysis. The magazine covers the economics of agriculture, food and nutrition, the food industry, trade, rural America, and farm-related environmental topics. Available on the Internet and in print, Amber Waves is issued in print five times a year (February, April, June, September, and November). The Internet edition, or "e-zine," includes links to web-only resources.
Released: February 2, 2004 $49.95/year
Amber Waves, June 2003: Amber Waves presents the broad scope of ERS’ research and analysis. The magazine covers the economics of agriculture, food and nutrition, the food industry, trade, rural America, and farm-related environmental topics. Available on the Internet and in print, Amber Waves is issued in print five times a year (February, April, June, September, and November). The Internet edition, or "e-zine," will change as new material is added between scheduled issues.
Released: June 20, 2003 $49.95/year
Amber Waves, June 2004: Amber Waves presents the broad scope of ERS' research and analysis. The magazine covers the economics of agriculture, food and nutrition, the food industry, trade, rural America, and farm-related environmental topics. Available on the Internet and in print, Amber Waves is issued in print five times a year (February, April, June, September, and November). The Internet edition, or "e-zine," includes links to web-only resources.
Released: June 1, 2004 $49.95/year
Amber Waves, November 2003: Amber Waves presents the broad scope of ERS' research and analysis. The magazine covers the economics of agriculture, food and nutrition, the food industry, trade, rural America, and farm-related environmental topics. Available on the Internet and in print, Amber Waves is issued in print five times a year (February, April, June, September, and November). The Internet edition, or "e-zine," includes links to web-only resources.
Published: November 2003 Released: November 7, 2003 $49.95/year
Amber Waves, September 2003: Amber Waves presents the broad scope of ERS' research and analysis. The magazine covers the economics of agriculture, food and nutrition, the food industry, trade, rural America, and farm-related environmental topics. Available on the Internet and in print, Amber Waves is issued in print five times a year (February, April, June, September, and November). The Internet edition, or "e-zine," includes links to web-only resources.
Published: September 2003 Released: September 8, 2003 $49.95/year
Amber Waves, September 2004: Amber Waves presents the broad scope of ERS' research and analysis. The magazine covers the economics of agriculture, food and nutrition, the food industry, trade, rural America, and farm-related environmental topics. Available on the Internet and in print, Amber Waves is issued in print five times a year (February, April, June, September, and November). The Internet edition, or "e-zine," includes links to web-only resources.
Released: September 1, 2004 $49.95/year
America's Diverse Family Farms: Assorted Sizes, Types, and Situations: This report describes a farm typology developed by the Economic Research Service (ERS), which categorizes farms into more homogeneous groups than classifications based on sales volume alone, producing a more effective policy development tool. The typology is used to describe U.S. farm structure.
ERSAIB769 8 pp Published: May 2001 Released: May 31, 2001 $12.00
America's Eating Habits: Changes and Consequences: Individual chapters in this book provide different perspectives on the nutrition problems in the United States: what are the economic costs associated with unhealthy eating patterns; how do dietary patterns compare with dietary recommendations; how do national income and prices, advertising, health claims, and trends in eating away from home affect nutrient intake; how much do people know about nutrition and how does nutrition knowledge and attitudes affect intake of fats and cholesterol; how do different government programs and regulations influence food expenditures and consumption; what are some public and private efforts to improve healthy eating; and what are potential impacts of healthier eating on domestic agriculture.
ERSAIB750 484 pp Published: May 1999 Released: May 1, 1999 $77.00
Analyses of Generic Dairy Advertising, 1984-97: Generic advertising raised fluid milk sales about 6.0 percent, or 18.1 billion pounds, between September 1984 and September 1997. Sales of cheese rose by about 6.8 million pounds (milk equivalent) in the same period because of increased generic advertising. An assessment of 15 cents per hundredweight of milk sold commercially, mandated by the Dairy and Tobacco Adjustment Act of 1983, funded the advertising. Activities of the National Fluid Milk Processor Promotion Board also contributed to increased milk sales over the past year. Gross returns to dairy farmers between September 1984 and September 1997 were estimated to increase by $3.44 for each dollar spent on generic advertising. This report presents the results of econometric demand models that examined the effect of advertising and other facts on milk and cheese sales.
ERSTB1873 44 pp Published: February 1999 Released: February 1, 1999 $25.50
An Analysis of Risk Premia in U.S. Farm-Level Interest Rates: Traditional family farms may face certain forms and sources of risks, while modern, corporate farm structures may face other types of risk. The belief that agriculture has greater inherent financial risk than other sectors of the eco-nomy underlies the philosophy of most government farm programs. Identifying the determinants of farm financial risk is essential to understanding the effects and operation of farm programs. Policymakers may desire to direct support toward certain segments of the farming population on the basis of differences in realized financial risks. Therefore, the objective of this article is to empirically consider factors related to financial risks on U.S. farms.
EEJS0101 Published: January 2000 Released: January 1, 2000
Analysis of the U.S. Commodity Loan Program with Marketing Loan Provisions: Over the next several years, crop prices are projected to be below to slightly above commodity loan rates. As a result, marketing loan benefits to farmers, in the form of loan deficiency payments and marketing loan gains from the commodity loan program, are likely to continue to be sizeable. The level of realized per-unit revenues facilitated by marketing loans exceeds commodity loan rates, thereby raising expected net returns to farmers. Model simulations show that the loan program can raise total acreage planted to major field crops, generally increasing levels of domestic use and exports while lowering crop prices. Cross-commodity effects of supply response to relative returns (including marketing loan benefits), however, result in acreage shifts among competing crops, which can lead to reductions in plantings of some crops in some years. Most impacts occur in the years when there are marketing loan benefits, with little effect in subsequent years when prices rise high enough to eliminate marketing loan benefits. The livestock sector benefits from these outcomes because of generally lower feed costs.
ERSAER801 26 pp Published: April 2001 Released: May 24, 2001 $23.00
Anatomy of Nonmetro High Poverty Areas: Common in Plight, Distinctive in Nature: This article discusses how rural high poverty counties differ across racial and demographic lines. Comparisons are made among and between high poverty counties populated by African Americans, Hispanics, Whites, and Native Americans.
Released: February 2, 2004
Antimicrobial Drug Use and Veterinary Costs in U.S. Livestock Production: Feeding low levels of antimicrobial drugs to livestock affects food safety, human health, and livestock production costs and returns. This report examines the economics of antimicrobial resistance in livestock and the economic implications of banning the use of growth-enhancing antimicrobial drugs in livestock production.
ERSAIB766 13 pp Published: May 2001 Released: May 8, 2001 $23.00
APEC Agriculture and Trade: Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Region Buying More U.S. Consumer-Ready Food Products: Provides information and analyses about developments in agriculture, food, policy, and trade in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) region, and implications for the United States. In fiscal 1995, more than 60 percent of U.S. farm exports, worth a record $33 billion, went to APEC forum members.
ERSAER734 68 pp Published: May 1996 Released: May 1, 1996 $27.00
APEC International Agriculture and Trade Report.: U.S. agricultural exports to the APEC region reached a record $36.7 billion in fiscal 1996, up 10 percent from the year before. The region accounted for more than 60 percent of total U.S. agricultural exports, about the same as in recent years. Mexico, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and Japan showed the biggest gains, while exports to China dropped from $2.4 billion in fiscal 1995 to $1.8 billion.
ERSWRS974 71 pp Released: August 1, 1997 $18.00
Aquaculture Outlook: Examines the U.S. aquaculture industry including production, inventory, sales, prices, inputs, and trade of catfish, trout, tilapia, salmon, mollusks, crawfish, shrimp, ornamental fish, and new species.
Published: October 2004 Released: October 8, 2004
ARMS Update Newsletter: Welcome to the ARMS Update newsletter, a part of ERS' commitment to improve knowledge of the Agricultural Resource Management Survey (ARMS) process and access to the aggregate data products. For information about the ARMS process, status, schedule, and data availability, get the latest issue of the newsletter online.
Published: December 2003 Released: August 31, 2004
Assessment of WIC Cost-Containment Practices: An Interim Report to Congress: The William F. Goodling Child Nutrition Act of 1998 directed ERS to conduct a study to assess the impacts of WIC (USDA's Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children) cost-containment practices. This Interim Report presents results from the first year of the study, including details of State WIC agencies' cost-containment practices, classification of States according to cost-containment practices, and selection of six States for case studies. The report also describes planned data collection efforts and subsequent analysis to be conducted to address the objectives specified in the legislation.
ERSEFAN01-005 38 pp Published: February 2001 Released: April 26, 2001 $25.50
Assessment of WIC Cost-Containment Practices: Executive Summary: The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) provides both nutrition education and supplemental foods containing nutrients determined by nutritional research to be lacking in the diets of pregnant, breastfeeding, and post-partum women, infants, and children. State WIC agencies have implemented practices designed to reduce the cost of food packages containing these prescribed foods. For instance, one of the WIC program's primary cost-saving practices is negotiating rebate contracts with manufacturers of infant formula. Additional practices include limiting authorized vendors to stores with lower food prices; limiting approved brands, package sizes, forms, or prices; and negotiating rebates with food manufacturers or suppliers. There is concern that these practices may inadvertently counter the program's goal of providing supplemental foods and nutrition education. Based on a review of cost-containment practices in six States, including interviews with the various stakeholders and analysis of WIC administrative files, the study draws three major conclusions: (1) cost-containment practices reduced average food package costs by 0.2 to 21.4 percent, depending on practices implemented and local conditions; (2) the cost-containment practices had few adverse outcomes for WIC participants; and (3) administrative costs of the practices were low, averaging about 1.5 percent of food package savings.
For more details on the results, see Assessment of WIC Cost-Containment Practices: Final Report.

FANRR31 32 pp Published: May 2003 Released: May 16, 2003 $25.50
Assessment of WIC Cost-Containment Practices: Final Report: The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) provides both nutrition education and supplemental foods for pregnant, breastfeeding, and post-partum women, infants, and children. These supplemental foods contain nutrients that nutritional research has found may otherwise be lacking in the diets of WIC recipients. State WIC agencies have implemented practices designed to reduce the cost of food packages containing these prescribed foods. For instance, one of the WIC program's primary cost-saving practices is negotiating rebate contracts with manufacturers of infant formula. Additional practices include limiting authorized vendors to stores with lower food prices; limiting approved brands, package sizes, forms, or prices; and negotiating rebates with food manufacturers or suppliers. There is concern that these practices may inadvertently counter the program's goal of providing supplemental foods and nutrition education. Based on a review of cost-containment practices in six States, including interviews with the various stakeholders and analysis of WIC administrative files, the study draws three major conclusions: (1) cost-containment practices reduced average food package costs by 0.2 to 21.4 percent, depending on practices implemented and local conditions; (2) the cost-containment practices had few adverse outcomes for WIC participants; and (3) administrative costs of the practices were low, averaging about 1.5 percent of food package savings.

A summary of this report, Assessment of WIC Cost-Containment Practices: Executive Summary, is also available online.

03-005 342 pp Published: February 2003 Released: February 25, 2003 $60.00
Assigning Values to Life: Comparing Methods for Valuing Health Risks: An examination of five approaches economists and health policy analysts have developed for evaluating policy affecting health and safety: cost-of-illness, willingness-to-pay, cost-effectiveness analysis, risk-risk analysis, and health-health analysis. Also examines the theoretical basis and empirical application of each approach and investigates the influence that assumptions embedded in each approach have on policy guidance.
ERSAER784 76 pp Published: December 1999 Released: December 1, 1999 $29.50
Asymmetric Information in the Market for Yield and Revenue Insurance: This report analyzes farmers' choice of crop insurance contracts and tests for the presence of asymmetric information in the market for multiple yield and revenue insurance products. Farmers' risk characteristics, their level of income, and the cost of insurance significantly affect their choices of yield and revenue insurance products as well as their selections of alternative coverage levels. Empirical analysis indicates that, in the presence of asymmetric information, high-risk farmers are more likely to select revenue insurance contracts and higher coverage levels. The results also indicate that premium rates do not accurately reflect the likelihood of losses, implying informational asymmetrics in the crop insurance market.
ERSTB1892 40 pp Published: April 2001 Released: May 15, 2001 $25.50
Atrazine: Environmental Characteristics and Economics of Management: Restricting or eliminating the use of atrazine in the Midwest would have important economic consequences for farmers and consumers. Atrazine is an important herbicide in the production of corn and other crops in the United States. Since atrazine is such an important herbicide, mandatory changes in application strategies are likely to generate sizable costs for producers and consumers. However, recent findings indicate that elevated amounts of atrazine are running off fields and entering surface water resources. This report presents the costs and benefits of an atrazine ban, a ban on pre-plant and pre-emergent applications, and a targeted ban to achieve a surface water standard. A complete atrazine ban is hypothesized to be the costliest strategy, while the targeted strategy is the least costly.
ERSAER699 28 pp Published: September 1994 Released: September 1, 1994 $23.00
Away-From-Home Foods Increasingly Important to Quality of American Diet: The increasing popularity of dining out over the past two decades has raised the proportion of nutrients obtained from away-from-home food sources. Between 1977 and 1995, home foods significantly improved their nutritional quality, more so than away-from-home foods, which typically contained more of the nutrients overconsumed (fat and saturated fat) and less of the nutrients underconsumed (calcium, fiber, and iron) by Americans. Since the trend of eating out frequently is expected to continue, strategies to improve the American diet must address consumers' food choices when eating out. This report analyzes food intake survey data collected by USDA over the past two decades to compare the nutritional quality of home and away-from-home foods and examine how the quality has changed over time.
ERSAIB749 32 pp Published: January 1999 Released: January 1, 1999 $25.50

USDA / FedStats / accessibility / privacy policy / contact us / advanced search / site map