1. Name of the Organism: |
Scombrotoxin |
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2. Nature of Acute Disease: |
Scombroid Poisoning (also called Histamine Poisoning)
Scombroid poisoning is caused by the ingestion of foods that
contain high levels of histamine and possibly other
vasoactive amines and compounds. Histamine and other amines are
formed by the growth of certain bacteria and the subsequent action
of their decarboxylase enzymes on histidine and other amino acids
in food, either during the production of a product such as Swiss
cheese or by spoilage of foods such as fishery products,
particularly tuna or mahi mahi. However, any food that contains the
appropriate amino acids and is subjected to certain bacterial
contamination and growth may lead to scombroid poisoning when
ingested.
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3. Nature of Disease: |
Initial symptoms may include a tingling or burning
sensation in the mouth, a rash on the upper body and a drop in
blood pressure. Frequently, headaches and itching of the skin are
encountered. The symptoms may progress to nausea, vomiting, and
diarrhea and may require hospitalization, particularly in the case
of elderly or impaired patients. |
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4. Diagnosis of Human Illness: |
Diagnosis of the illness is usually based on the
patient's symptoms, time of onset, and the effect of treatment with
antihistamine medication. The suspected food must be analyzed
within a few hours for elevated levels of histamine to confirm a
diagnosis. |
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5. Associated Foods: |
Fishery products that have been implicated in
scombroid poisoning include the tunas (e.g., skipjack and
yellowfin), mahi mahi, bluefish, sardines, mackerel, amberjack, and
abalone. Many other products also have caused the toxic effects.
The primary cheese involved in intoxications has been Swiss cheese.
The toxin forms in a food when certain bacteria are present and
time and temperature permit their growth. Distribution of the toxin
within an individual fish fillet or between cans in a case lot can
be uneven, with some sections of a product causing illnesses and
others not. Neither cooking, canning, or freezing reduces the toxic
effect. Common sensory examination by the consumer cannot ensure
the absence or presence of the toxin. Chemical testing is the only
reliable test for evaluation of a product. |
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6. Relative Frequency of
Disease: |
Scombroid poisoning remains one of the most common
forms of fish poisoning in the United States. Even so, incidents of
poisoning often go unreported because of the lack of required
reporting, a lack of information by some medical personnel, and
confusion with the symptoms of other illnesses. Difficulties with
underreporting are a worldwide problem. In the United States from
1968 to 1980, 103 incidents of intoxication involving 827 people
were reported. For the same period in Japan, where the quality of
fish is a national priority, 42 incidents involving 4,122 people
were recorded. Since 1978, 2 actions by FDA have reduced the
frequency of intoxications caused by specific products. A defect
action level for histamine in canned tuna resulted in increased
industry quality control. Secondly, blocklisting of mahi mahi
reduced the level of fish imported to the United States. |
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7. Course of Disease and
Complications: |
The onset of intoxication symptoms is rapid, ranging
from immediate to 30 minutes. The duration of the illness is
usually 3 hours, but may last several days. |
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8. Target Populations: |
All humans are susceptible to scombroid poisoning;
however, the symptoms can be severe for the elderly and for those
taking medications such as isoniazid. Because of the worldwide
network for harvesting, processing, and distributing fishery
products, the impact of the problem is not limited to specific
geographical areas of the United States or consumption pattern.
These foods are sold for use in homes, schools, hospitals, and
restaurants as fresh, frozen, or processed products. |
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9. Food Analysis: |
An official method was developed at FDA to determine
histamine, using a simple alcoholic extraction and quantitation by
fluorescence spectroscopy. There are other untested procedures in
the literature. |
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10. Selected Outbreaks: |
Literature references can be found at the links
below. |
MMWR 38(9):1989 |
Scombroid fish poisoning is an acute syndrome
resulting from consumption of fish containing high levels of
histamine. This report summarizes investigations of two outbreaks
of scombroid fish poisoning in Illinois and South Carolina in
1988. |
MMWR 37(29):1988 |
In July 1987, state and local public health officials
in New Mexico investigated two cases of scombroid fish poisoning
(histamine poisoning) in persons living in Albuquerque. A husband
and wife had become ill within 45 minutes after eating dinner.
Their symptoms included nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, headache,
fever, flushing, and rapid pulse rate. An investigation by the
Albuquerque Environmental Health Department found that the couple
had shared a meal of grilled mahi mahi, pasta, salad, water, and
wine. Their dog had eaten some of the fish and had vomited. Both of
the patients had been treated with Benadryl, activated charcoal,
and ipecac in a hospital emergency room. Their symptoms resolved
within 36 hours of onset of illness. |
MMWR 35(16):1986 |
Between December 31, 1985, and January 4, 1986, three
restaurants in Alabama and Tennessee received complaints of illness
from nine customers and one employee who ate Pacific amberjack fish
(also called yellowtail or kahala). One restaurant cook, who did
not eat the fish, reported a transient red rash on the hands
shortly after handling the fish. Ill persons reported no other menu
items in common. The fish meals were prepared by grilling or
frying. Three people sought medical evaluation. One had diastolic
hypotension, and one had bronchospasm. All three were diagnosed as
having food or fish allergy and were treated with an antihistamine.
The symptoms of scombroid fish poisoning resemble those of a
histamine reaction. Scombroid poisoning is a response to toxic
by-products--not an allergic reaction to fish. |
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Several large outbreaks of scombroid poisoning have
been reported. In 1970, some 40 children in a school lunch program
became ill from imported canned tuna. In 1973, more than 200
consumers across the United States were affected by domestic canned
tuna. In 1979-1980 more than 200 individuals became ill after
consuming imported frozen mahi mahi. Symptoms varied with each
incident. In the 1973 situation, of the interviewed patients, 86%
experienced nausea, 55% diarrhea, 44% headaches and 32%
rashes. |
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Other incidents of intoxication have resulted from
the consumption of canned abalone-like products, canned anchovies,
and fresh and frozen amberjack, bluefish sole, and scallops. In
particular, shipments of unfrozen fish packed in refrigerated
containers have posed a significant problem because of inadequate
temperature control. |
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Reports |
For more information on recent outbreaks see
the CDC. |
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11. Education and Background
Resources: |
Literature references can be found at the links
below. |
Loci index for genome |
Available from the GenBank
Taxonomy database, which contains the names of all organisms
that are represented in the genetic databases with at least one
nucleotide or protein sequence. |
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12. Molecular Structural Data: |
This structure was created by Fred Fry, Ph.D,
CFSAN. |
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Scombroid Toxin |