Condom Effectiveness

I.  Review Articles/General Overviews 

           Condom Effectiveness

              Laboratory Studies 

           Methodology 

II.  Clinical/Epidemiologic Studies 

           Chancroid - See Genital Ulcer Diseases 

           Chlamydia 

           Genital Herpes 

              Genital Ulcer Disease 

              Gonorrhea 

              HIV 

              Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Infection and Associated Diseases 

                        HPV Infection 

                        HPV-Associated Diseases 

                                Cervical Dysplasia/Cervical Cancer 

                                Genital Warts 

             Syphilis 

             Trichomoniasis 

III.  Ecologic Studies

I.  Review Articles/ Overviews 

Condom Effectiveness 

Cates W, Stone KM. Family planning, sexually transmitted diseases and contraceptive choice: A literature update-Part I. Fam Plann Perspect 1992;24:75-84. 

Cates W Jr. The NIH condom report: the glass is 90% full. Family Plann Perspect 2001; 33(5):231- 3. 

d'oro LC, Parazzini F, Naldi L, LaVecchia C. Barrier methods of contraception, spemicides, and sexually transmitted diseases: A review. Genitourin Med 1994;70:410. 

Feldblum PJ, Morrison CS, Roddy RE, et al.  The effectiveness of barrier methods of contraception in preventing the spread of HIV.  AIDS 1995; 9(Suppl A): S85-S93. 

McNeill ET, Gilmore CE, Finger WR, et al.  The Latex Condom: Recent Advances, Future Directions.  Family Health International: Research Triangle Park, NC, 1998. 

National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases.  Workshop Summary:  Scientific Evidence on Condom Effectiveness for Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD) Prevention.  July 20, 2001 http://www.niaid.nih.gov/dmid/stds/condomreport.pdf 

Stone KM, Timyan J, Thomas EL. Barrier methods for the prevention of sexually transmitted diseases. In: Holmes KK et al (eds): Sexually Transmitted Diseases, Third Edition.  New York: McGraw- Hill, 1999, pp. 1307-1321. 

Warner DL. Male condoms.  In: Hatcher RA, Trussell J, Stewart F, et al (eds): Contraceptive Technology, Seventeenth Revised Edition. New York: Ardent Media, 1998, pp. 325-355. 

Laboratory Studies 

Carey RF, Lytle CD, Cyr WH.  Implications of laboratory tests of condom integrity. Sex Transm Dis 1999;26:216-220. 

Lytle CD, Routson LB, Seaborn GB, Dixon LG, Bushar HF, Cyr WH.  Lack of latex porosity: A review of virus barrier tests. J Rubb Res 1999;2:29-39. 

Lytle CD, Routson LB, Seaborn GB, et al. An in vitro evaluation of condoms as barriers to a small virus. Sex Transm Dis 1997; 24:161-164. 

McNeill ET, Gilmore CE, Finger WR, et al.  The Latex Condom: Recent Advances, Future Directions.  Family Health International: Research Triangle Park, NC, 1998. 

Methodology

Aral SO, Peterman TA.  Measuring outcomes of behavioural interventions for STD/HIV prevention. Int J STD AIDS 1996;7(suppl 2):30-38. 

Crosby RA. Condom use as a dependent variable: measurement issues relevant to HIV prevention programs. AIDS Educ and Prev 1998;10: 548-557. 

Davis KR, Weller SC.  The effectiveness of condoms in reducing heterosexual transmission of HIV. Fam Plann Perspect 1999;31:272-79.     

Feldblum PJ, Morrison CS, Roddy RE, et al.  The effectiveness of barrier methods of contraception in preventing the spread of HIV.  AIDS 1995; 9(Suppl A): S85-S93. 

Pinkerton SD, Abramson PR.  Effectiveness of condoms in preventing HIV transmission.  Soc Sci Med 1997;44:1303-12. 

Schachter J, Chow JM.  The fallibility of diagnostic tests for sexually transmitted disease: the impact on behavioral and epidemiologic studies.  Sex Transm Dis 1995;22:191-196. 

Spruyt A, Steiner MJ, Joanis C, et al. Identifying condom users at risk of breakage and slippage: findings from three international sites.  Am J Public Health 1998;88:239-244. 

Warner L, Clay-Warner J, Boles J, Williamson J.  Assessing condom use practices: implications for evaluating methods and user effectiveness.  Sex Transm Dis 1998;25:273-77. 

Weir, SS, Feldblum PJ. Condom use to prevent incident STDs [letter]. Sex Transm Dis 1996;23:76- 77. 

II. Clinical Studies   

Chancroid - See Genital Ulcer Diseases 

Chlamydia 

Ahmed S, Lutalo T, Wawer M, et al. HIV incidence and STD prevalence associated with condom use: a population study in Rakai, Uganda.  AIDS 2001;15:2171-2179. 

Fennema JSA, van Ameijden EJC, Coutinho RA, van Den Hoek A.  Clinical sexually transmitted diseases among human immunodeficiency virus-infected and noninfected drug-using prostitutes. Associated factors and interpretation of trends, 1986 to 1994.  Sex Transm Dis 1997; 24:363-71. 

Gaydos CA, Howell RM, Pare B, et al.  Chlamydia trachomatis infections in female military recruits.  N Engl J Med 1998;339:739-44. 

Joesoef MR, Linnan M, Barakbah Y, et al.  Patterns of sexually transmitted diseases in female sex workers in Surabaya, Indonesia.  Int J STD AIDS 1997;8:576-580.

Peters SE, Beck-Sague CM, Farshy CE, et al.  Behaviors associated with Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis: cervical infection among young women attending adolescent clinics.  Clinical Pediatrics 2000;39:173-77. 

Ramstedt K, Forssman L, Giesecke J, Granath F.  Risk factors for Chlamydia trachomatis in 6810 young women attending family planning clinics.  Int J STD AIDS 1992;3:117-122. 

Rosenberg MJ, Davidson AJ, Chen JH, Judson FN, Douglas JM.  Barrier contraceptives and sexually transmitted diseases in women: a comparison of female-dependent methods and condoms.  Am J Public Health 1992; 82:669-674. 

Schwartz MA, Lafferty WE, Hughes JP, Handsfield HH.  Risk factors for urethritis in heterosexual men.  Sex Transm Dis 1997;24:449-55. 

Zelin JM, Robinson AJ, Ridgway GL, et al.  Chlamydial urethritis in heterosexual men attending a genitourinary medicine clinic: prevalence, symptoms, condom usage and partner change.  Int J STD AIDS 1995;6:27-30. 

Zenilman JM, Weisman CS, Rompalo AM, et al. Condom use to prevent incident STDs: the validity of self-reported condom use.  Sex Transm Dis 1995;22:15-21. 

Genital Herpes 

Bryson Y, Dillon M, Bernstein D, Radolf J, Zakowski P, Garratty E.  Risk of acquisition of genital herpes simplex virus type 2 in sex partners of persons with genital herpes: a prospective couple study. J Infect Dis 1993;167:942-946. 

Dobbins JG, Mastro TD, Nopkesorn T, et al.  Herpes in the time of AIDS: A comparison of the epidemiology of HIV-1 and HSV-2 in young men in Northern Thailand.  Sex Transm Dis 1999; 26:67-74. 

Huerta K, Berkelhamer S, Klein J, et al.  Epidemiology of herpes simplex virus type 2 infections in a high-risk adolescent population.  J Adolescent Health 1996; 18:384-386. 

Kjaer SK, Engholm G, Teisen C, et al.  Risk factors for cervical human papillomavirus and herpes simplex virus infections in Greenland and Denmark: A population-based study.  Am J Epidemiol 1990; 131:669-681. 

Obasi A, Mosha F, Quigley M, et al. Antibody to herpes simplex virus type 2 as a marker of sexual risk behavior in rural Tanzania.  J Infect Dis 1999; 179:16-24. 

Oberle MW, Rosero-Bixby L, Lee FK, et al.  Herpes simplex virus type 2 antibodies:  High prevalence in monogamous women in Costa Rica.  Am J Trop Med Hyg 1989; 41:224-229. 

Wald A, Langenberg AG, Link K, et al. Effect of condoms on reducing the transmission of herpes simplex virus type 2 from men to women.  JAMA 2001;285:3100-3106. 

Genital Ulcer Disease

Cameron DW, Ngugi EN, Ronald AR, et al.  Condom use prevents genital ulcers in women working as prostitutes.  Sex Transm Dis 1991 July-Sept;18:188-191. 

Levine WC, Revollo R, Kaune V, et al.  Decline in sexually transmitted disease prevalence in female Bolivian sex workers: impact of an HIV prevention project.  AIDS 1998;12:1899-1906. 

Gonorrhea 

Ahmed S, Lutalo T, Wawer M, et al. HIV incidence and STD prevalence associated with condom use: a population study in Rakai, Uganda.  AIDS 2001;15:2171-2179. 

Austin H, Louv WC, Alexander J.  A case-control study of spermicides and gonorrhea.  JAMA 1984; 251):2822-2824. 

Barlow D.  The condom and gonorrhoea.  Lancet 1977; 222:811-12. 

Cates W Jr., Holmes KK. Re: condom efficacy against gonorrhea and nongonococcal urethritis. Am J Epidemiol 1996;143:843-844. 

Darrow WW.  Condom use and use-effectiveness in high-risk populations.  Sex Transm Dis 1989;16:157-160. 

Darrow WW. Innovative health behavior [Dissertation]. Atlanta, GA, Emory University, 1973. 

Fennema JSA, van Ameijden EJC, Coutinho RA, van Den Hoek A.  Clinical sexually transmitted diseases among human immunodeficiency virus-infected and noninfected drug-using prostitutes. Associated factors and interpretation of trends, 1986 to 1994.  Sex Transm Dis 1997; 24:363-71. 

Hooper RR, Reynolds GH, Hones OG, et al.  Cohort study of venereal disease. I: the risk of gonorrhea transmission from infected women to men.  Am J Epidemiol 1978;108:136-144. 

Joesoef MR, Linnan M, Barakbah Y, et al.  Patterns of sexually transmitted diseases in female sex workers in Surabaya, Indonesia.  Int J STD AIDS 1997;8:576-580. 

Levine WC, Revollo R, Kaune V, et al.  Decline in sexually transmitted disease prevalence in female Bolivian sex workers: impact of an HIV prevention project.  AIDS 1998;12:1899-1906. 

Mertz KJ,  Finelli L, Levine WL, et al. Gonorrhea in male adolescents and young adults in Newark, New Jersey.   Sex Transm Dis 2000;27:201-207. 

Pemberton J, McCann JS, Mahony JDH, et al.  Socio-medical characteristics of patients attending a V.D. clinic and the circumstances of infection.  Br J Vener Dis 1972; 48:391-396. 

Peters SE, Beck-Sague CM, Farshy CE, et al.  Behaviors associated with Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis: cervical infection among young women attending adolescent clinics.  Clinical Pediatrics 2000;39:173-77. 

Rosenberg MJ, Davidson AJ, Chen JH, Judson FN, Douglas JM.  Barrier contraceptives and sexually transmitted diseases in women: a comparison of female-dependent methods and condoms.  Am J Public Health 1992; 82:669-674.

Schwartz MA, Lafferty WE, Hughes JP, Handsfield HH.  Risk factors for urethritis in heterosexual men.  Sex Transm Dis 1997;24:449-55. 

Upchurch DM, Brady WE, Reichart CA, Hook EW III.  Behavioral contributions to acquisition of gonorrhea in patients attending an inner-city sexually transmitted disease clinic.  J Infect Dis 1990;161:938-41. 

HIV 

Allen S, Tice J, Van de Perre P, et al. Effect of serotesting with counselling on condom use and seroconversion among HIV discordant couples in Africa.  BMJ 1992; 304:1605-1609. 

Davis KR and Weller SC.  The effectiveness of condoms in reducing heterosexual transmission of HIV. Fam Plann Perspect 1999; 31:272-279. 

de Vincenzi I.  A longitudinal study of human immunodeficiency virus transmission by heterosexual partners.  N Engl J Med 1994; 331:341-346. 

Deschamps MM, Pape JW, Hafner A, Johnson WD.  Heterosexual Transmission of HIV in Haiti.  Ann Intern Med 1996; 125:324-330. 

Fischl MA, Dickinson GM, Scott GB, Klimas N, Fletcher MA, Parks W.  Evaluation of heterosexual partners, children, and household contacts of adults with AIDS.  JAMA 1987; 257:640-644. 

Hira SK, Feldblum PJ, Kamanga J, Mukelabai G, Weir SS, Thomas JC.  Condom and nonoxynol-9 use and the incidence of HIV infection in serodiscordant couples in Zambia.  Int J STD AIDS 1997; 8: 243-250. 

Kamenga M, Ryder RW, Jingu M, et al.  Evidence of marked sexual behavior change associated with low HIV-1 seroconversion in 149 married couples with discordant HIV-1 serostatus:  experience at an HIV counselling center in Zaire. AIDS  1991; 5:61-67. 

Laurian Y, Peynet J, Verroust F.  HIV infection in sexual partners of HIV-seropositive patients with hemophilia, letter.  N Engl J Med 1989; 320:183. 

O'Brien TR, Busch MP, Donegan E, et al. Heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 from transfusion recipients to their sex partners.  J AIDS 1994; 7:705-710. 

Peterman TA, Stoneburner RL, Allen JR, Jaffe HW, Curran JW. Risk of human immunodeficiency virus transmission from heterosexual immunodeficiency virus transmission from heterosexual adults with transfusion-associated infections.   JAMA 1988; 259:55-58. 

Pinkerton SD and Abramson PR.  Effectiveness of condoms in preventing HIV transmission.  Soc Sci Med 1997; 44:1303-1312. 

Saracco A, Musicco M, Nicolosi A, et al.  Man-to-woman sexual transmission of HIV:  Longitudinal study of 343 steady partners of Iifected men.  J AIDS 1993; 6:497-502.

Siddiqui NS, Brown LS, Phillips RY, Vargas O, Makuch RW.  No seroconversions among steady sex partners of methadone-maintained HIV-1-seropositive injecting drug users in New York City.  AIDS 1992; 6:1529-1533. 

van der Ende ME, Rothbarth P, Stibbe J.  Heterosexual transmission of HIV by hemophiliacs. BMJ 1988; 297:1102-1103. 

Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Infection and Associated Diseases 

HPV Infection 

Burk RD, Kelly P, Feldman J, et al. Declining prevalence of cervicovaginal human papillomavirus infection with age is independent of other risk factors. Sex Transm Dis 1996;23:333-341. 

Burk RD, Ho GYF, Beardsley L, Lempa M, Peters M, Bierman R. Sexual behavior and partner characteristics are the predominant risk factors for genital human papillomavirus infection in young women. J Infect Dis 1996;174:679-689. 

Figueroa JP, Ward E, Luthi TE, Vermund SH, Brathwaite AR, Burk RD.  Prevalence of human papillomavirus among STD clinic attenders in Jamaica: association of younger age and increased sexual activity.  Sex Transm Dis 1995;22:114-118. 

Hankins C, Coutlee F, Lapointe N, et al. Prevalence of risk factors associated with human papillomavirus infection in women living with HIV.  Can Med Assoc J 1999;160:185-191. 

Hillman RJ, Ryait BK, Boetcherby M, Taylor-Robinson D. Human papillomavirus DNA in the urogenital tracts of men with gonrrhoea, penile warts or genital dermatoses. Genitourin Med 1993; 69: 187-192. 

Hippelainen MI, Hippelainen M, Saarikoski S, Syrjanen K.  Clinical course and prognostic factors of human papillomavirus infections in men.  Sex Transm Dis 1994; 21:272-279. 

Hippelainen M, Syrjanen S, Hippelainen M, et al.  Prevalence and risk factors of genital human papillomavirus (HPV) infections in healthy males: A study on Finnish conscripts.  Sex Transm Dis 1993; 20:321-328. 

Ho GYF, Bierman R, Beardsley L, Chang CJ, Burk RD. Natural history of cervicovaginal papillomavirus infection in young women. N Engl J Med 1998;338:423-428. 

Jamison JH, Kaplan DW, Hamman R, Eagar R, Beach R, Douglas JM.  Spectrum of genital human papillomavirus infection in a female adolescent population.  Sex Transm Dis 1995; 22:236-243. 

Juarez-Figueroa LA, Wheeler CM, Uribe-Salas FJ, et al. Human papillomavirus: A highly prevalent sexually transmitted disease agent among female sex workers from Mexico City. Sex Transm Dis 2001: 28: 125-130.

Karlsson R, Jonsson M, Edlund K, et al. Lifetime number of partners as the only independent risk factor for human papillomavirus infection: A population-based study. Sex Transm Dis 1995;22:119- 126. 

Kataja V, Syrjanen S, Yliskoski M, et al.  Risk factors associated with cervical human papillomavirus infections: A case-control study.  Am J Epidemiol 1993; 138:735-745. 

Kjaer SK , Svare EI, Worm AM, Walboomers JMM, Meijer CJLM, Van den Brule AJC.  Human papillomavirus infection in Danish female sex workers: Decreasing prevalence with age despite continuously high sexual activity.  Sex Transm Dis 2000;27: 438-445. 

Kjaer SK, van den Brule AJC, Bock JE, et al. Determinants for genital human papillomavirus (HPV) infection in 1000 randomly chosen young Danish women with normal Pap smear: Are there different risk profiles for oncogenic and nononcogenic HPV types?  Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 1997;6:799-805. 

Kotloff KL, Wasserman SS, Russ K, et al. Detection of genital human papillomavirus and associated cytological abnormalities among college women. Sex Transm Dis 1998;25:243-250. 

Kreiss JK, Kiviat NB, Plummer FA, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus, human papillomavirus, and cervical intraepithelial neoplasia in Nairobi prostitutes.  Sex Transm Dis 1992; 19:54-59. 

Lazcano-Ponce E, Herrero R, Munoz N, et al.  High prevalence of human papillomavirus infection in Mexican males: Comparative study of penile-urethral swabs and urine samples. Sex Transm Dis 2001;28:277-280. 

Moscicki AB, Hills N, Shiboski S, et al.  Risks for incident human papillomavirus infection and low- grade squamous intraepithelial lesion development in young females.  JAMA 2001;285:2995-3002. 

Munoz N, Kato I, Bosch FX, et al. Risk factors for HPV DNA detection in middle-aged women.  Sex Transm Dis 1996:23: 504-510. 

Peyton Cheri L, Gravitt PE, Hunt WC, et al. Determinants of genital human papillomavirus detection in a U.S. population.  J Infect Dis 2001;183:1554-1564. 

Sellors J, Mahony JB, Kaczorowski J, et al. Prevalence and predictors of human papillomavirus infection in women in Ontario, Canada. Can Med Assoc J 2000;163:503-508. 

Strickler HD, Kirk GD, Figueroa JP, et al. HPV 16 antibody prevalence in Jamaica and the United States reflects differences in cervical cancer rates. Int J Cancer 1999;80:339-344. 

Svare EI, Kjaer SK, Worm AM, et al. Risk factors for HPV infection in women from sexually transmitted disease clinics: Comparison between two areas with different cervical cancer incidence. Int J Cancer 1998;75:1-8. 

Young TK, McNicol P, Beauvais J.  Factors associated with human papillomavirus infection detected by polymerase chain reaction among urban Canadian Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal Women.  Sex Transm Dis 1997; 24:293-298. 

Human Papillomavirus-Associated Diseases

Cervical Dysplasia/Cervical Cancer

Adam E, Berkova Z, Daxnerova Z, Icenogle J, Reeves WC, Kaufman RH.  Papillomavirus detection: demographic and behavioral characteristics influencing the identification of cervical disease.  Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000 Feb;182:257-264. 

Becker TM, Wheeler CM, McGough NS, et al. Contraceptive and reproductive risks for cervical dysplasia in southwestern Hispanic and non-Hispanic white Women.  Int J Epidemiology 1994; 23:913-922. 

Hildesheim A, Brinton LA, Mallin K, et al. Barrier and spermicidal contraceptive methods and risk of invasive cervical Cancer.  Epidemiology 1990; 1:266-272. 

Donnan SPB, Wong FW, Ho SC, Lau EM, Takashi K, Esteve J.  Reproductive and sexual risk factors and human papilloma virus infection in cervical cancer among Hong Kong Chinese.  Int J Epidemiol 1989; 18:32-36. 

Ho GYF, Kadish AS, Burk RD, et al.  HPV 16 and cigarette smoking as risk factors for high grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia.   Int J Cancer 1998; 78:281-285. 

Kjaer SK, de Villiers EM, Dahl C, et al.  Case-control study of risk factors for cervical neoplasia in Denmark. I: Role of the 'male factor' in women with one lifetime sexual partner.  Int J Cancer 1991; 48:39-44. 

Kjaer SK, van den Brule AJ, Bock JE, et al.  Human papillomavirus-the most significant risk determinant of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia.  Int J Cancer 1996; 65, 601-606. 

Kreiss JK, Kiviat NB, Plummer FA, et al.  Human immunodeficiency virus, human papillomavirus, and cervical intraepithelial neoplasia in Nairobi prostitutes.  Sex Transm Dis 1992; 19:54-59. 

Munoz  N, Bosch FX, de Sanjose S, et al.  Risk factors for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade III/carcinoma in situ in Spain and Colombia.  Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1993; 2:423-431. 

Peters RK, Thomas D, Hagan DG, Mack TM, Henderson BE. Risk factors for invasive cervical cancer among Latinas and Non-Latinas in Los Angeles County. JNCI 1986;77:1063-1077. 

Shlay JC, McGill WL, Masloboeva HA, Douglas JM. Pap smear screening in an urban STD clinic: yield of screening and predictors of abnormalities. Sex Transm Dis 1998;25:468-475. 

Slattery ML, Overall JC, Abbott TM, French TK, Robison LM, Gardner J.  Sexual activity, contraception, genital infections, and cervical cancer:  support for a sexually transmitted disease hypothesis. Am J Epidemiol 1989;130:248-258. 

Thomas DB, Ray RM, Pardthaisong T, et al.  Prostitution, condom use, and invasive squamous cell cervical cancer in Thailand.  Am J Epidemiol 1996; 143:779-786. 

Wang PD, Lin RS.  Risk factors for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia in Taiwan.  Gynecol Oncol 1996; 62:10-18. 

Genital Warts

Evans BA, Tasker T, MacRae KD. Risk profiles for genital infection in women. Genitourin Med 1993; 69:257-261. 

Hippelainen M, Syrjanen S, Hippelainen M, et al.  Prevalence and risk factors of genital human papillomavirus (HPV) infections in healthy males: A study on Finnish conscripts.  Sex Transm Dis 1993; 20:321-328. 

Kreiss JK, Kiviat NB, Plummer FA, et al.  Human immunodeficiency virus, human papillomavirus, and cervical intraepithelial neoplasia in Nairobi prostitutes.  Sex Transm Dis 1992; 19:54-59. 

Wen LM, Estcourt CS, Simpson JM, Mindel A.  Risk factors for the acquisition of genital warts: are condoms protective?  Sex Transm Inf 1999; 75:312-316. 

Syphilis 

Ahmed S, Lutalo T, Wawer M, et al. HIV incidence and STD prevalence associated with condom use: a population study in Rakai, Uganda.  AIDS 2001;15:2171-2179. 

Barlow D. The condom and gonorrhoea.  Lancet 1977; 222:811-12. 

Finelli L, Budd J, Spitalny KC.  Early syphilis:  relationship to sex, drugs and changes in high-risk behavior from 1987-1990.  Sex Transm Dis 1993; 20:90-95. 

Gattari P, Speziale D, Grillo R et al.  Syphilis serology among transvestite prostitutes attending an HIV unit in Rome, Italy.  Eur J Epidemiol 1994;10:683-686. 

Joesoef MR, Linnan M, Barakbah Y, et al.  Patterns of sexually transmitted diseases in female sex workers in Surabaya, Indonesia.  Int J STD AIDS 1997;8:576-580. 

Levine WC, Revollo R, Kaune V, et al.  Decline in sexually transmitted disease prevalence in female Bolivian sex workers: impact of an HIV prevention project.  AIDS 1998;12:1899-1906. 

Pemberton J, McCann JS, Mahony JDH, et al.  Socio-medical characteristics of patients attending a V.D. clinic and the circumstances of infection.  Br J Vener Dis 1972; 48:391-396. 

Tanaka M, Nakayama H, Sakumoto M, Matsumoto T, Akazawa K, Kumazawa J.  Trends in sexually transmitted diseases and condom use patterns among commercial sex workers in Fukuoka City, Japan 1990-1993; Genitourin Med 1996;72:358-361. 

Uribe-Salas F, del Rio-Chiriboga C, Conde-Glez CJ, et al.  Prevalence, incidence, and determinants of syphilis in female commercial sex workers in Mexico City.  Sex Transm Dis 1996;23:121-126. 

Trichomoniasis 

Ahmed S, Lutalo T, Wawer M, et al. HIV incidence and STD prevalence associated with condom use: a population study in Rakai, Uganda.  AIDS 2001;15:2171-2179.

Fennema JSA, van Ameijden EJC, Coutinho RA, van Den Hoek A.  Clinical sexually transmitted diseases among human immunodeficiency virus-infected and noninfected drug-using prostitutes. Associated factors and interpretation of trends, 1986 to 1994.  Sex Transm Dis 1997; 24:363-71. 

Joesoef MR, Linnan M, Barakbah Y, et al.  Patterns of sexually transmitted diseases in female sex workers in Surabaya, Indonesia.  Int J STD AIDS 1997;8:576-580. 

Levine WC, Revollo R, Kaune V, et al.  Decline in sexually transmitted disease prevalence in female Bolivian sex workers: impact of an HIV prevention project.  AIDS 1998;12:1899-1906. 

Rosenberg MJ, Davidson AJ, Chen JH, Judson FN, Douglas JM.  Barrier contraceptives and sexually transmitted diseases in women: A comparison of female-dependent methods and condoms.  Am J Public Health 1992; 82:669-674. 

III.  Ecologic Studies 

Rojanapithayakorn W, Hanenberg R.  The 100% condom program in Thailand. AIDS 1996; 10(1):1- 7.