NIOSH POCKET GUIDE TO
CHEMICAL HAZARDS

APPENDICES

APPENDICES

New Policy

      For the past 20 plus years, NIOSH has subscribed to a carcinogen policy that was published in 1976 by Edward J. Fairchild, II, Associate Director for Cincinnati Operations, which called for "no detectable exposure levels for proven carcinogenic substances" (Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 271:200-207, 1976). This was in response to a generic OSHA rulemaking on carcinogens. Because of advances in science and in approaches to risk assessment and risk management, NIOSH has adopted a more inclusive policy. NIOSH recommended exposure limits (RELs) will be based on risk evaluations using human or animal health effects data, and on an assessment of what levels can be feasibly achieved by engineering controls and measured by analytical techniques. To the extent feasible, NIOSH will project not only a no-effect exposure, but also exposure levels at which there may be residual risks. This policy applies to all workplace hazards, including carcinogens, and is responsive to Section 20(a)(3) of the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970, which charges NIOSH to ". . .describe exposure levels that are safe for various periods of employment, including but not limited to the exposure levels at which no employee will suffer impaired health or functional capacities or diminished life expectancy as a result of his work experience."

      The effect of this new policy will be the development, whenever possible, of quantitative RELs that are based on human and/or animal data, as well as on the consideration of technological feasibility for controlling workplace exposures to the REL. Under the old policy, RELs for most carcinogens were non-quantitative values labeled "lowest feasible concentration (LFC)." [Note: There are a few exceptions to LFC RELs for carcinogens (e.g., RELs for asbestos, formaldehyde, benzene, and ethylene oxide are quantitative values based primarily on analytical limits of detection or technological feasibility). Also, in 1989, NIOSH adopted several quantitative RELs for carcinogens from OSHA's permissible exposure limit (PEL) update.]

      Under the new policy, NIOSH will also recommend the complete range of respirators (as determined by the NIOSH Respirator Decision Logic) for carcinogens with quantitative RELs. In this way, respirators will be consistently recommended regardless of whether a substance is a carcinogen or a non-carcinogen.

Old Policy

      In the past, NIOSH identified numerous substances that should be treated as potential occupational carcinogens even though OSHA might not have identified them as such. In determining their carcinogenicity, NIOSH used the OSHA classification outlined in 29 CFR 1990.103, which states in part:

Potential occupational carcinogen means any substance, or combination or mixture of substances, which causes an increased incidence of benign and/or malignant neoplasms, or a substantial decrease in the latency period between exposure and onset of neoplasms in humans or in one or more experimental mammalian species as the result of any oral, respiratory or dermal exposure, or any other exposure which results in the induction of tumors at a site other than the site of administration. This definition also includes any substance which is metabolized into one or more potential occupational carcinogens by mammals.

      When thresholds for carcinogens that would protect 100% of the population had not been identified, NIOSH usually recommended that occupational exposures to

carcinogens be limited to the lowest feasible concentration. To ensure maximum protection from carcinogens through the use of respiratory protection, NIOSH also recommended that only the most reliable and protective respirators be used. These respirators include (1) a self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) that has a full facepiece and is operated in a positive-pressure mode, or (2) a supplied-air respirator that has a full facepiece and is operated in a pressure-demand or other positive-pressure mode in combination with an auxiliary SCBA operated in a pressure-demand or other positive-pressure mode.

Recommendations to be Revised

      The RELs and respirator recommendations for carcinogens listed in this edition of the Pocket Guide still reflect the old policy. Changes in the RELs and respirator recommendations that reflect the new policy will be included in future editions.

Thirteen OSHA-Regulated Carcinogens

      Without establishing PELs, OSHA promulgated standards in 1974 to regulate the industrial use of 13 chemicals identified as potential occupational carcinogens.

2-acetylaminofluorene

4-aminodiphenyl

benzidine

bis-chloromethyl ether

3,3'-dichlorobenzidine

4-dimethylaminoazobenzene

ethyleneimine

methyl chloromethyl ether

alpha-naphthylamine

beta-naphthylamine

4-nitrobiphenyl

N-nitrosodimethylamine

beta-propiolactone

      Exposures of workers to these 13 chemicals are to be controlled through the required use of engineering controls, work practices, and personal protective equipment, including respirators. See 29 CFR 1910.1003-1910.1016 for specific details of these requirements.

      Respirator selections in the Pocket Guide are based on NIOSH policy, which considers the 13 chemicals to be potential occupational carcinogens.

Aldehydes (Low-Molecular-Weight)

      Exposure to acetaldehyde has produced nasal tumors in rats and laryngeal tumors in hamsters, and exposure to malonaldehyde has produced thyroid gland and pancreatic islet cell tumors in rats. NIOSH therefore recommends that acetaldehyde and malonaldehyde be considered potential occupational carcinogens in conformance with the OSHA carcinogen policy.

      Testing has not been completed to determine the carcinogenicity of acrolein, butyraldehyde (CAS#: 123-72-8), crotonaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, glyoxal (CAS#: 107-22-2), paraformaldehyde (CAS#: 30525-89-4), propiolaldehyde (CAS#: 624-67-9), propionaldehyde (CAS#: 123-38-6), and n-valeraldehyde, nine related low-molecular-weight-aldehydes.

      However, the limited studies to date indicate that these substances have chemical reactivity and mutagenicity similar to acetaldehyde and malonaldehyde. Therefore, NIOSH recommends that careful consideration should be given to reducing exposures to these nine related aldehydes.

      Further information can be found in the "NIOSH Current Intelligence Bulletin 55: Carcinogenicity of Acetaldehyde and Malonaldehyde, and Mutagenicity of Related Low-Molecular-Weight Aldehydes" [DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 91-112.]

Asbestos

      NIOSH considers asbestos to be a potential occupational carcinogen and recommends that exposures be reduced to the lowest feasible concentration. For asbestos fibers >5 micrometers in length, NIOSH recommends a REL of 100,000 fibers per cubic meter of air (100,000 fibers/m³), which is equal to 0.1 fiber per cubic centimeter of air (0.1 fiber/cm³), as determined by a 400-liter air sample collected over 100 minutes in accordance with NIOSH Analytical Method #7400. Airborne asbestos fibers are defined as those particles having (1) an aspect ratio of 3 to 1 or greater and (2) the mineralogic characteristics (that is, the crystal structure and elemental composition) of the asbestos minerals and their nonasbestiform analogs. The asbestos minerals are defined as chrysotile, crocidolite, amosite (cummingtonite-grunerite), anthophyllite, tremolite, and actinolite. In addition, airborne cleavage fragments from the nonasbestiform habits of the serpentine minerals antigorite and lizardite, and the amphibole minerals contained in the series cummingtonite-grunerite, tremolite-ferroactinolite, and glaucophane-riebeckite should also be counted as fibers provided they meet the criteria for a fiber when viewed microscopically.

      As found in 29 CFR 1910.1001, the OSHA PEL for asbestos fibers (i.e., actinolite asbestos, amosite, anthophyllite asbestos, chrysotile, crocidolite, and tremolite asbestos) is an 8-hour TWA airborne concentration of 0.1 fiber (longer than 5 micrometers and having a length-to-diameter ratio of at least 3 to 1) per cubic centimeter of air (0.1 fiber/cm³), as determined by the membrane filter method at approximately 400X magnification with phase contrast illumination. No worker should be exposed in excess of 1 fiber/cm³ (excursion limit)as averaged over a sampling period of 30 minutes.

Benzidine-, o-Tolidine, and o-Dianisidine-based Dyes

      In December 1980, OSHA and NIOSH jointly published the Health Hazard Alert: Benzidine-, o-Tolidine-, and o-Dianisidine-based Dyes.

      In this Alert, OSHA and NIOSH concluded that benzidine and benzidine-based dyes were potential occupational carcinogens and recommended that worker exposure be reduced to the lowest feasible level.

      OSHA and NIOSH further concluded that o-tolidine and o-dianisidine (and dyes based on them) may present a cancer risk to workers and should be handled with caution and exposure minimized.

Carbon Black

      NIOSH considers "Carbon Black" to be the material consisting of more than 80% elemental carbon in the form of near-spherical colloidal particles and coalesced particle aggregates of colloidal size that is obtained by the partial combustion or thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons.

      The NIOSH REL (10-hour TWA) for carbon black is 3.5 mg/m³. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), particulate polycyclic organic material (PPOM), and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PNAs) are terms frequently used to describe various petroleum-based substances that NIOSH considers to be potential occupational carcinogens.

      Since some of these aromatic hydrocarbons may be formed during the manufacture of carbon black (and become adsorbed on the carbon black), the NIOSH REL (10-hour TWA) for carbon black in the presence of PAHs is also 0.1 mg PAHs/m³ (measured as the cyclohexane-extractable fraction).

      The OSHA PEL (8-hour TWA) for carbon black is 3.5 mg/m³.

Chloroethanes

      NIOSH considers ethylene dichloride; hexachloroethane; 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane; and 1,1,2-trichloroethane; to be potential occupational carcinogens.

      Additionally, NIOSH recommends that the other five chloroethane compounds:

1,1-dichloroethane

ethyl chloride

methyl chloroform

pentachloroethane

1,1,1,2-tetrachloroethane

be treated in the workplace with caution because of their structural similarity to the four chloroethanes shown to be carcinogenic in animals.

Chromic Acid and Chromates (as CrO₃),
chromium(II) and Chromium(III) Compounds
(as Cr), and Chromium Metal (as Cr)

      The NIOSH REL (10-hour TWA) is 0.001 mg Cr(VI)/m³ for all hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] compounds. NIOSH considers all Cr(VI) compounds (including chromic acid, tert-butyl chromate, zinc chromate, and chromyl chloride) to be potential occupational carcinogens.

      The NIOSH REL (8-hour TWA) is 0.5 mg Cr/m³ for chromium metal and chromium(II) and chromium(III) compounds.

      The OSHA PEL is 0.1 mg CrO₃/m³ (ceiling) for chromic acid and chromates (including tert-butyl chromate with a "skin" designation and zinc chromate); 0.5 mg Cr/m³ (8-hour TWA) for chromium(II) and chromium(III) compounds; and 1 mg Cr/m³ (8-hour TWA) for chromium metal and insoluble salts.

Coal Tar Pitch Volatiles

      NIOSH considers coal tar products (i.e., coal tar, coal tar pitch, or creosote) to be potential occupational carcinogens; the NIOSH REL (10-hour TWA) for coal tar products is 0.1 mg/m³ (cyclohexane-extractable fraction).

      The OSHA PEL (8-hour TWA) for coal tar pitch volatiles is 0.2 mg/m³ (benzene-soluble fraction). OSHA defines "coal tar pitch volatiles" in 29 CFR 1910.1002 as the fused polycyclic hydrocarbons that volatilize from the distillation residues of coal, petroleum (excluding asphalt), wood, and other organic matter and includes substances such as anthracene, benzo(a)pyrene (BaP), phenanthrene, acridine, chrysene, pyrene, etc.

Coke Oven Emissions

      The production of coke by the carbonization of bituminous coal leads to the release of chemically-complex emissions from coke ovens that include both gases and particulate matter of varying chemical composition.

      The emissions include coal tar pitch volatiles (e.g., particulate polycyclic organic matter [PPOM], polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons [PAHs], and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons [PNAs]), aromatic compounds (e.g., benzene and beta-naphthylamine), trace metals (e.g., arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, lead, and nickel), and gases (e.g., nitric oxides and sulfur dioxide).

Cotton Dust (raw)

      NIOSH recommends reducing exposures to cotton dust to the lowest feasible concentration to reduce the prevalence and severity of byssinosis; the REL is <0.200 mg/m³ (as lint-free cotton dust).

      As found in OSHA Table Z-1 (29 CFR 1910.1000), the PEL for cotton dust (raw) is 1 mg/m³ for the cotton waste processing operations of waste recycling (sorting, blending, cleaning, and willowing) and garnetting.

      PELs for other sectors (as found in 29 CFR 1910.1043) are 0.200 mg/m³ for yarn manufacturing and cotton washing operations, 0.500 mg/m³ for textile mill waste house operations or for dust from "lower grade washed cotton" used during yarn manufacturing, and 0.750 mg/m³ for textile slashing and weaving operations.

      The OSHA standard in 29 CFR 1910.1043 does not apply to cotton harvesting, ginning, or the handling and processing of woven or knitted materials and washed cotton.

      All PELs for cotton dust are mean concentrations of lint-free, respirable cotton dust collected by the vertical elutriator or an equivalent method and averaged over an 8-hour period.

Lead

      NIOSH considers "Lead" to mean metallic lead, lead oxides, and lead salts (including organic salts such as lead soaps but excluding lead arsenate).

      The NIOSH REL for lead (8-hour TWA) is 0.050 mg/m³; air concentrations should be maintained so that worker blood lead remains less than 0.060 mg Pb/100 g of whole blood.

      OSHA considers "Lead" to mean metallic lead, all inorganic lead compounds (lead oxides and lead salts), and a class of organic compounds called soaps; all other lead compounds are excluded from this definition.

      The OSHA PEL (8-hour TWA) is 0.050 mg/m³; other OSHA requirements can be found in 29 CFR 1910.1025. The OSHA PEL (8-hour TWA) for lead in "non-ferrous foundries with less than 20 employees" is 0.075 mg/m³.

Mineral Dusts

      These OSHA PELs for "mineral dusts" listed below are from Table Z-3 of 29 CFR 1910.1000.

      The OSHA PEL (8-hour TWA) for crystalline silica (as respirable quartz) is either 250 mppcf divided by the value "%SiO₂ + 5" or 10 mg/m³ divided by the value "%SiO₂ + 2".

      The OSHA PEL (8-hour TWA) for crystalline silica (as total quartz) is 30 mg/m³ divided by the value "%SiO₂ + 2".

      The OSHA PELs (8-hour TWAs) for cristobalite and tridymite are the values calculated above using the count or mass formulae for quartz.

      The OSHA PEL (8-hour TWA) for amorphous silica (including diatomaceous earth) is either 80 mg/m³ divided by the value "%SiO₂", or 20 mppcf.

      The OSHA PELs (8-hour TWAs) for mica, soapstone, and talc (not containing asbestos) are 20 mppcf.

      The OSHA PEL (8-hour TWA) for Portland cement is 50 mppcf. The OSHA PEL (8-hour TWA) for graphite (natural) is 15 mppcf.

      The OSHA PEL (8-hour TWA) for coal dust (as the respirable fraction) containing less than 5% SiO₂ is 2.4 mg/m³.

      The OSHA PEL (8-hour TWA) for coal dust (as the respirable fraction) containing greater than 5% SiO₂ is 10 mg/m³ divided by the value "%SiO₂ + 2".

NIAX® Catalyst ESN

      In May 1978, OSHA and NIOSH jointly published the Current Intelligence Bulletin (CIB) 26: NIAX® Catalyst ESN.

      In this CIB, OSHA and NIOSH recommended that occupational exposure to NIAX® Catalyst ESN, its components, dimethylaminopropionitrile and bis(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl)ether, as well as formulations containing either component, be minimized.

      Exposures should be limited to as few workers as possible, while minimizing workplace exposure concentrations with effective work practices and engineering controls.

      Exposed workers should be carefully monitored for potential disorders of the nervous and genitourinary system. Although substitution is a possible control measure, alternatives to NIAX® Catalyst ESN or its components should be carefully evaluated with regard to possible adverse health effects.

Trichloroethylene

      NIOSH considers trichloroethylene (TCE) to be a potential occupational carcinogen and recommends a REL of 2 ppm (as a 60-minute ceiling) during the usage of TCE as an anesthetic agent and 25 ppm (as a 10-hour TWA) during all other exposures.

Tungsten Carbide (Cemented)

      "Cemented tungsten carbide" or "hard metal" refers to a mixture of tungsten carbide, cobalt, and sometimes metal oxides or carbides and other metals (including nickel).

      When the cobalt (Co) content exceeds 2%, its contribution to the potential hazard is judged to exceed that of tungsten carbide.

      Therefore, the NIOSH REL (10-hour TWA) for cemented tungsten carbide containing >2% Co is 0.05 mg Co/m³; the applicable OSHA PEL is 0.1 mg Co/m³ (8-hour TWA). Nickel (Ni) may sometimes be used as a binder rather than cobalt.

      NIOSH considers cemented tungsten carbide containing nickel to be a potential occupational carcinogen and recommends a REL of 0.015 mg Ni/m³ (10-hour TWA).

      The OSHA PEL for Insoluble Nickel (i.e., a 1 mg Ni/m³ 8-hour TWA) applies to mixtures of tungsten carbide and nickel.

      After reviewing available published literature, NIOSH provided comments to OSHA on August 1, 1988, regarding the "Proposed Rule on Air Contaminants" (29 CFR 1910, Docket No. H-020).

      In these comments, NIOSH questioned whether the PELs proposed (and listed below) for the following substances included in the Pocket Guide were adequate to protect workers from recognized health hazards:

acetylene tetrabromide [TWA 1 ppm]

chlorobenzene [TWA 75 ppm]

coal dust (<5%SiO₂) [2 mg/m³ (as the respirable dust fraction)], coal dust (>/= 5% SiO₂) [0.1 mg/m³ (as the respirable quartz fraction)]

ethyl bromide [TWA 200 ppm; STEL 250 ppm]

ethylene glycol [Ceiling 50 ppm]

ethyl ether [TWA 400 ppm; STEL 500 ppm]

fenthion [TWA 0.2 mg/m³ (skin)]

furfural [TWA 2 ppm (skin)]

2-isopropoxyethanol [TWA 25 ppm]

isopropyl acetate [TWA 250 ppm; STEL 310 ppm]

isopropylamine [TWA 5 ppm; STEL 10 ppm]

manganese tetroxide (as Mn) [TWA 1 mg/m³]

molybdenum (soluble compounds as Mo) [TWA 5 mg/m³]

nitromethane [TWA 100 ppm]

m-toluidine [TWA 2 ppm (skin)]

triethylamine [TWA 10 ppm; STEL 15 ppm]

      At that time, NIOSH also conducted a limited evaluation of the literature and concluded that the documentation cited by OSHA was inadequate to support the proposed PEL (as an 8-hour TWA) of 10 mg/m³ for alpha-alumina, benomyl, emery, glycerine (mist), graphite (synthetic), magnesium oxide fume, molybdenum (insoluble compounds as Mo), particulates not otherwise regulated, picloram, and rouge.

Benzene: The final OSHA Benzene standard in 1910.1028 applies to all occupational exposures to benzene except some subsegments of industry where exposures are consistently under the action level (i.e., distribution and sales of fuels, sealed containers and pipelines, coke production, oil and gas drilling and production, natural gas processing, and the percentage exclusion for liquid mixtures); for the excepted subsegments, the benzene limits in Table Z-2 apply (i.e., an 8-hour TWA of 10 ppm, an acceptable ceiling of 25 ppm, and 50 ppm for a maximum duration of 10 minutes as an acceptable maximum peak above the acceptable ceiling).

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APPENDIX G
1989 Air Contaminants Update Project:
Exposure Limits Not in Effect