Civil service regulations govern the appointment of police and detectives.
Competition should remain keen for higher paying jobs with State and Federal agencies and police departments in affluent areas; opportunities will be better in local and special police departments that offer relatively low salaries or in urban communities where the crime rate is relatively high.
Applicants with college training in police science or military police experience should have the best opportunities.
People depend on police officers and detectives to protect their lives and property. Law enforcement officers, some of whom are State or Federal special agents or inspectors, perform these duties in a variety of ways, depending on the size and type of their organization. In most jurisdictions, they are expected to exercise authority when necessary, whether on or off duty.
Uniformed police officers who work in municipal police departments of various sizes, small communities, and rural areas have general law enforcement duties including maintaining regular patrols and responding to calls for service. They may direct traffic at the scene of a fire, investigate a burglary, or give first aid to an accident victim. In large police departments, officers usually are assigned to a specific type of duty. Many urban police agencies are becoming more involved in community policing—a practice in which an officer builds relationships with the citizens of local neighborhoods and mobilizes the public to help fight crime.
Police agencies are usually organized into geographic districts, with uniformed officers assigned to patrol a specific area, such as part of the business district or outlying residential neighborhoods. Officers may work alone, but in large agencies they often patrol with a partner. While on patrol, officers attempt to become thoroughly familiar with their patrol area and remain alert for anything unusual. Suspicious circumstances and hazards to public safety are investigated or noted, and officers are dispatched to individual calls for assistance within their district. During their shift, they may identify, pursue, and arrest suspected criminals, resolve problems within the community, and enforce traffic laws.
Public college and university police forces, public school district police, and agencies serving transportation systems and facilities are examples of special police agencies. These agencies have special geographic jurisdictions or enforcement responsibilities in the United States. Most sworn personnel in special agencies are uniformed officers, a smaller number are investigators.
Some police officers specialize in such diverse fields as chemical and microscopic analysis, training and firearms instruction, or handwriting and fingerprint identification. Others work with special units such as horseback, bicycle, motorcycle or harbor patrol, canine corps, or special weapons and tactics (SWAT) or emergency response teams. A few local and special law enforcement officers primarily perform jail-related duties or work in courts. Regardless of job duties or location, police officers and detectives at all levels must write reports and maintain meticulous records that will be needed if they testify in court.
Sheriffs and deputy sheriffs enforce the law on the county level. Sheriffs are usually elected to their posts and perform duties similar to those of a local or county police chief. Sheriffs’ departments tend to be relatively small, most having fewer than 25 sworn officers. A deputy sheriff in a large agency will have law enforcement duties similar to those of officers in urban police departments. Police and sheriffs’ deputies who provide security in city and county courts are sometimes called bailiffs. (For information on other officers who work in jails and prisons, see
correctional officers elsewhere in the Handbook.)
State police officers (sometimes called State troopers or highway patrol officers) arrest criminals Statewide and patrol highways to enforce motor vehicle laws and regulations. Uniformed officers are best known for issuing traffic citations to motorists who violate the law. At the scene of accidents, they may direct traffic, give first aid, and call for emergency equipment. They also write reports used to determine the cause of the accident. State police officers are frequently called upon to render assistance to other law enforcement agencies, especially those in rural areas or small towns.
State law enforcement agencies operate in every State except Hawaii. Most full-time sworn personnel are uniformed officers who regularly patrol and respond to calls for service. Others are investigators, perform court-related duties, or work in administrative or other assignments.
Detectives are plainclothes investigators who gather facts and collect evidence for criminal cases. Some are assigned to interagency task forces to combat specific types of crime. They conduct interviews, examine records, observe the activities of suspects, and participate in raids or arrests. Detectives and State and Federal agents and inspectors usually specialize in one of a wide variety of violations such as homicide or fraud. They are assigned cases on a rotating basis and work on them until an arrest and conviction occurs or the case is dropped.
The Federal Government maintains a high profile in many areas of law enforcement. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) agents are the Government’s principal investigators, responsible for investigating violations of more than 260 statutes and conducting sensitive national security investigations. Agents may conduct surveillance, monitor court-authorized wiretaps, examine business records, investigate white-collar crime, track the interstate movement of stolen property, collect evidence of espionage activities, or participate in sensitive undercover assignments. The FBI investigates organized crime, public corruption, financial crime, fraud against the government, bribery, copyright infringement, civil rights violations, bank robbery, extortion, kidnapping, air piracy, terrorism, espionage, interstate criminal activity, drug trafficking, and other violations of Federal statutes.
U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) agents enforce laws and regulations relating to illegal drugs. Not only is the DEA the lead agency for domestic enforcement of Federal drug laws, it also has sole responsibility for coordinating and pursuing U.S. drug investigations abroad. Agents may conduct complex criminal investigations, carry out surveillance of criminals, and infiltrate illicit drug organizations using undercover techniques.
U.S. marshals and deputy marshals protect the Federal courts and ensure the effective operation of the judicial system. They provide protection for the Federal judiciary, transport Federal prisoners, protect Federal witnesses, and manage assets seized from criminal enterprises. They enjoy the widest jurisdiction of any Federal law enforcement agency and are involved to some degree in nearly all Federal law enforcement efforts. In addition, U.S. marshals pursue and arrest Federal fugitives.
U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) agents and inspectors facilitate the entry of legal visitors and immigrants to the U.S. and detain and deport those arriving illegally. They consist of border patrol agents, immigration inspectors, criminal investigators and immigration agents, and detention and deportation officers. U.S. Border Patrol agents protect more than 8,000 miles of international land and water boundaries. Their missions are to detect and prevent the smuggling and unlawful entry of undocumented foreign nationals into the U.S., apprehend those persons found in violation of the immigration laws, and interdict contraband, such as narcotics. Immigration inspectors interview and examine people seeking entrance to the U.S. and its territories. They inspect passports to determine whether people are legally eligible to enter the United States. Immigration inspectors also prepare reports, maintain records, and process applications and petitions for immigration or temporary residence in the United States.
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives agents regulate and investigate violations of Federal firearms and explosives laws, as well as Federal alcohol and tobacco tax regulations. Customs agents investigate violations of narcotics smuggling, money laundering, child pornography, customs fraud, and enforcement of the Arms Export Control Act. Domestic and foreign investigations involve the development and use of informants, physical and electronic surveillance, and examination of records from importers/exporters, banks, couriers, and manufacturers. They conduct interviews, serve on joint task forces with other agencies, and get and execute search warrants.
Customs inspectors inspect cargo, baggage, and articles worn or carried by people and carriers including vessels, vehicles, trains and aircraft entering or leaving the U.S. to enforce laws governing imports and exports. These inspectors examine, count, weigh, gauge, measure, and sample commercial and noncommercial cargoes entering and leaving the United States. Customs inspectors seize prohibited or smuggled articles, intercept contraband, and apprehend, search, detain, and arrest violators of U.S. laws.
U.S. Secret Service special agents protect the President, Vice President, and their immediate families; Presidential candidates; former Presidents; and foreign dignitaries visiting the United States. Secret Service agents also investigate counterfeiting, forgery of Government checks or bonds, and fraudulent use of credit cards.
The U.S. Department of State Bureau of Diplomatic Security special agents are engaged in the battle against terrorism. Overseas, they advise ambassadors on all security matters and manage a complex range of security programs designed to protect personnel, facilities, and information. In the U.S., they investigate passport and visa fraud, conduct personnel security investigations, issue security clearances, and protect the Secretary of State and a number of foreign dignitaries. They also train foreign civilian police and administer a counter-terrorism reward program.
Other Federal agencies employ police and special agents with sworn arrest powers and the authority to carry firearms. These agencies include the Postal Service, the Bureau of Indian Affairs Office of Law Enforcement, the Forest Service, the National Park Service, and the Federal Air Marshals.
Police work can be very dangerous and stressful. In addition to the obvious dangers of confrontations with criminals, officers need to be constantly alert and ready to deal appropriately with a number of other threatening situations. Many law enforcement officers witness death and suffering resulting from accidents and criminal behavior. A career in law enforcement may take a toll on officers’ private lives.
Uniformed officers, detectives, agents, and inspectors are usually scheduled to work 40-hour weeks, but paid overtime is common. Shift work is necessary because protection must be provided around the clock. Junior officers frequently work weekends, holidays, and nights. Police officers and detectives are required to work at any time their services are needed and may work long hours during investigations. In most jurisdictions, whether on or off duty, officers are expected to be armed and to exercise their arrest authority whenever necessary.
The jobs of some Federal agents such as U.S. Secret Service and DEA special agents require extensive travel, often on very short notice. They may relocate a number of times over the course of their careers. Some special agents in agencies such as the U.S. Border Patrol work outdoors in rugged terrain for long periods and in all kinds of weather.
Police and detectives held about 840,000 jobs in 2002. About 81 percent were employed by local governments. State police agencies employed about 11 percent and various Federal agencies employed about 6 percent. A small proportion worked for educational services, rail transportation, and contract investigation and security services.
According to the U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics, police and detectives employed by local governments primarily worked in cities with more than 25,000 inhabitants. Some cities have very large police forces, while thousands of small communities employ fewer than 25 officers each.
Civil service regulations govern the appointment of police and detectives in practically all
States, large municipalities, and special police agencies, as well as in many smaller ones.
Candidates must be U.S. citizens, usually at least 20 years of age, and must meet rigorous
physical and personal qualifications. In the Federal Government, candidates must be at least
21 years of age but less than 37 years of age at the time of appointment.
Physical examinations for entrance into law enforcement often include tests of vision,
hearing, strength, and agility. Eligibility for appointment usually depends on performance in
competitive written examinations and previous education and experience.
In larger departments, where the majority of law enforcement jobs are found,
applicants usually must have at least a high school education.
Federal and State agencies typically require a college degree. Candidates should
enjoy working with people and meeting the public.
Because personal characteristics such as honesty, sound judgment, integrity, and a
sense of responsibility are especially important in law enforcement, candidates are
interviewed by senior officers, and their character traits and backgrounds are investigated.
In some agencies, candidates are interviewed by a psychiatrist or a psychologist, or given a
personality test. Most applicants are subjected to lie detector examinations or drug testing.
Some agencies subject sworn personnel to random drug testing as a condition of continuing employment.
Before their first assignments, officers usually go through a period of training.
In State and large local departments, recruits get training in their agency’s police academy,
often for 12 to 14 weeks. In small agencies, recruits often attend a regional or State academy.
Training includes classroom instruction in constitutional law and civil rights, State laws and
local ordinances, and accident investigation. Recruits also receive training and supervised
experience in patrol, traffic control, use of firearms, self-defense, first aid, and emergency
response. Police departments in some large cities hire high school graduates who are still in
their teens as police cadets or trainees. They do clerical work and attend classes, usually
for 1 to 2 years, at which point they reach the minimum age requirement and may be appointed to the regular force.
Police officers usually become eligible for promotion after a probationary period ranging from 6 months to 3 years.
In a large department, promotion may enable an officer to become a detective or specialize in one
type of police work, such as working with juveniles. Promotions to corporal, sergeant,
lieutenant, and captain usually are made according to a candidate’s position on a
promotion list, as determined by scores on a written examination and on-the-job performance.
To be considered for appointment as an FBI agent, an applicant either must be a graduate
of an accredited law school or a college graduate with a major in accounting, fluency in a
foreign language, or 3 years of related full-time work experience. All new agents undergo
16 weeks of training at the FBI academy on the U.S. Marine Corps base in Quantico, Virginia.
Applicants for special agent jobs with the U.S. Secret Service and the
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives
must have a bachelor’s degree or a minimum of 3 years’ related work experience.
Prospective special agents undergo 10 weeks of initial criminal investigation
training at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center in Glynco, Georgia,
and another 17 weeks of specialized training with their particular agencies.
Applicants for special agent jobs with the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA)
must have a college degree and either 1 year of experience conducting criminal investigations,
1 year of graduate school, or have achieved at least a 2.95 grade point average while in college.
DEA special agents undergo 14 weeks of specialized training at the FBI Academy in Quantico, Virginia.
U.S. Border Patrol agents must be U.S. citizens, younger than 37 years of age at the time of
appointment, possess a valid driver’s license, and pass a three-part examination on reasoning and
language skills. A bachelor’s degree or previous work experience that demonstrates the ability
to handle stressful situations, make decisions, and take charge is required for a position as a
Border Patrol agent. Applicants may qualify through a combination of education and work experience.
Postal inspectors must have a bachelor’s degree and 1 year of related work experience.
It is desirable that they have one of several professional certifications, such as that of
certified public accountant. They also must pass a background suitability investigation,
meet certain health requirements, undergo a drug screening test, possess a valid State
driver’s license, and be a U.S. citizen between 21 and 36 years of age when hired.
Law enforcement agencies are encouraging applicants to take postsecondary school
training in law enforcement-related subjects. Many entry-level applicants for police
jobs have completed some formal postsecondary education and a significant number are
college graduates. Many junior colleges, colleges, and universities offer programs
in law enforcement or administration of justice. Other courses helpful in preparing
for a career in law enforcement include accounting, finance, electrical engineering,
computer science, and foreign languages. Physical education and sports are helpful
in developing the competitiveness, stamina, and agility needed for many law enforcement
positions. Knowledge of a foreign language is an asset in many Federal agencies and urban departments.
Continuing training helps police officers, detectives, and special agents improve their job performance.
Through police department academies, regional centers for public safety employees established by the
States, and Federal agency training centers, instructors provide annual training
in self-defense tactics, firearms, use-of-force policies, sensitivity and communications
skills, crowd-control techniques, relevant legal developments, and advances in law
enforcement equipment. Many agencies pay all or part of the tuition for officers
to work toward degrees in criminal justice, police science, administration of
justice, or public administration, and pay higher salaries to those who earn such a degree.
The opportunity for public service through law enforcement work is attractive to many because the job is challenging and involves much personal responsibility. Furthermore, law enforcement officers in many agencies may retire with a pension after 20 or 25 years of service, allowing them to pursue a second career while still in their 40s. Because of relatively attractive salaries and benefits, the number of qualified candidates exceeds the number of job openings in Federal law enforcement agencies and in most State police departments—resulting in increased hiring standards and selectivity by employers. Competition should remain keen for higher paying jobs with State and Federal agencies and police departments in more affluent areas. Opportunities will be better in local and special police departments, especially in departments that offer relatively low salaries, or in urban communities where the crime rate is relatively high. Applicants with college training in police science, military police experience, or both should have the best opportunities.
Employment of police and detectives is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2012. A more security-conscious society and concern about drug-related crimes should contribute to the increasing demand for police services.
The level of government spending determines the level of employment for police and detectives. The number of job opportunities, therefore, can vary from year to year and from place to place. Layoffs, on the other hand, are rare because retirements enable most staffing cuts to be handled through attrition. Trained law enforcement officers who lose their jobs because of budget cuts usually have little difficulty finding jobs with other agencies. The need to replace workers who retire, transfer to other occupations, or stop working for other reasons will be the source of many job openings.
Police and sheriff’s patrol officers had median annual earnings of $42,270 in 2002.
The middle 50 percent earned between $32,300 and $53,500. The lowest 10 percent earned less than
$25,270, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $65,330. Median annual earnings were
$47,090 in State government, $42,020 in local government, and $41,600 in Federal Government.
In 2002, median annual earnings of police and detective supervisors were $61,010.
The middle 50 percent earned between $47,210 and $74,610. The lowest 10 percent earned less than
$36,340, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $90,070. Median annual earnings were
$78,230 in Federal Government, $64,410 in State government, and $59,830 in local government.
In 2002, median annual earnings of detectives and criminal investigators were $51,410.
The middle 50 percent earned between $39,010 and $65,980. The lowest 10 percent earned less
than $31,010, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $80,380.
Median annual earnings were $66,500 in Federal Government, $47,700 in local government, and $46,600 in State government.
Federal law provides special salary rates to Federal employees who serve in law enforcement.
Additionally, Federal special agents and inspectors receive law enforcement availability pay (LEAP)—equal to 25
percent of the agent’s grade and step—awarded because of the large amount of overtime that these agents
are expected to work. For example, in 2003 FBI agents enter Federal service
as GS-10 employees on the pay scale at a base salary of $39,115, yet earned about $48,890 a year
with availability pay. They can advance to the GS-13 grade level in field nonsupervisory assignments
at a base salary of $61,251, which is worth $76,560 with availability pay. FBI supervisory,
management, and executive positions in grades GS-14 and GS-15 pay a base salary of about
$72,381 or $85,140 a year, respectively, and equaled $90,480 or $106,430 per year including
availability pay. Salaries were slightly higher in selected areas where the prevailing
local pay level was higher. Because Federal agents may be eligible for a special law
enforcement benefits package, applicants should ask their recruiter for more information.
According to the International City-County Management Association’s annual Police and Fire Personnel,
Salaries, and Expenditures Survey, average salaries for sworn full-time positions in 2002 were as follows:
Minimum annual base salary
Maximum annual base salary
Police chief
$68,337
$87,037
Deputy chief
59,790
75,266
Police captain
56,499
70,177
Police lieutenant
52,446
63,059
Police sergeant
46,805
55,661
Police corporal
39,899
49,299
Total earnings for local, State, and special police and detectives frequently exceed the stated salary because of payments for overtime, which can be significant. In addition to the common benefits—paid vacation, sick leave, and medical and life insurance—most police and sheriffs’ departments provide officers with special allowances for uniforms. Because police officers usually are covered by liberal pension plans, many retire at half-pay after 20 or 25 years of service.
Information about entrance requirements may be obtained from Federal, State, and local law enforcement agencies.
Further information about qualifications for employment as a FBI Special Agent is available from the nearest State FBI office. The address and phone number are listed in the local telephone directory.
Internet: http://www.fbi.gov
Information on career opportunities, qualifications, and training for U.S. Secret Service Special Agents is available from the Secret Service Personnel Division at (202) 406-5800, (888) 813-8777 or (888) 813-USSS.
Internet: http://www.treas.gov/usss
Information about qualifications for employment as a DEA Special Agent is available from the nearest DEA office, or call (800) DEA-4288.
Internet: http://www.usdoj.gov/dea
Information about career opportunities, qualifications, and training to become a deputy marshal is available from:
U.S. Marshals Service, Human Resources Division—Law Enforcement Recruiting, Washington, DC 20530-1000.
Internet: http://www.usdoj.gov/marshals
For information on operations and career opportunities in the U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco,
Firearms, and Explosives operations, contact:
U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives Personnel Division, 650 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Room 4100, Washington, DC 20226.
Internet: http://www.atf.treas.gov
Information about careers in U.S. Customs and Border Protection is available from:
U.S. Customs and Border Protection, 1300 Pennsylvania Ave., NW., Washington, DC 20229.
Internet: http://www.cbp.gov
Suggested citation:
Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2004-05 Edition,
Police and Detectives, on the Internet at
http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos160.htm
(visited November 11, 2004).
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
Office of Occupational Statistics and Employment Projections
Suite 2135
2 Massachusetts Avenue, NE
Washington, DC 20212-0001
