HVAC systems and their components should be evaluated with respect to how they impact vulnerability to the introduction of CBR agents. Relevant issues include the HVAC system controls, the ability of the HVAC system to purge the building, the efficiency of installed filters, the capacity of the system relative to potential filter upgrades, and the significance of uncontrolled leakage into the building. Another consideration is the vulnerability of the HVAC system and components themselves, particularly when the facility is open to the public. For buildings under secure access, interior components may be considered less vulnerable, depending upon the perceived threat and the confidence in the level of security.

 

EVALUATE HVAC CONTROL OPTIONS. Many central HVAC systems have energy management and control systems that can regulate airflow and pressures within a building on an emergency response basis. Some modern fire alarm systems may also provide useful capabilities during CBR events. In some cases, the best response option (given sufficient warning) might be to shut off the building’s HVAC and exhaust system( s), thus, avoiding the introduction of a CBR agent from outside. In other cases, interior pressure and airflow control may prevent the spread of a CBR agent released in the building and/or ensure the safety of egress pathways. The decision to install emergency HVAC control options should be made in consultation with a qualified HVAC professional that understands the ramifications of various HVAC operating modes on building operation and safety systems.

Depending upon the design and operation of the HVAC system and the nature of the CBR agent release, HVAC control may not be appropriate in all emergency situations. Lobbies, loading docks, and mailrooms might be provided with manually operated exhaust systems, activated by trained personnel to remove contaminants in the event of a known release, exhausting air to an appropriate area. In other instances, manipulation of the HVAC system could minimize the spread of an agent. If an HVAC control plan is pursued, building personnel should be trained to recognize a terrorist attack quickly and to know when to initiate the control measures. For example, emergency egress stairwells should remain pressurized (unless they are known to contain the CBR source). Other areas, such as laboratories, clean rooms, or pressure isolation rooms in hospitals, may need to remain ventilated. All procedures and training associated with the control of the HVAC system should be addressed in the building’s emergency response plan.

ASSESS FILTRATION. Increasing filter efficiency is one of the few measures that can be implemented in advance to reduce the consequences of both an interior and exterior release of a particulate CBR agent. However, the decision to increase efficiency should be made cautiously, with a careful understanding of the protective limitations resulting from the upgrade. The filtration needs of a building should be assessed with a view to implementing the highest filtration efficiency that is compatible with the installed HVAC system and its required operating parameters. In general, increased filter efficiency will provide benefits to the indoor environmental quality of the building. However, the increased protection from CBR aerosols will occur only if the filtration efficiency increase applies to the particle size range and physical state of the CBR contaminant. It is important to note that particulate air filters are used for biological and radiological particles and are not effective for gases and vapors typical of chemical attacks. These types of compounds require adsorbent filters (i.e., activated carbon or other sorbent-type media) and result in substantial initial and recurring costs.

Upgrading filtration is not as simple as merely replacing a low-efficiency filter with a higher efficiency one. Typically, higher efficiency filters have a higher pressure loss, which will result in some airflow reduction through the system. The magnitude of the reduction is dependent on the design and capacity of the HVAC system. If the airflow reduction is substantial, it may result in inadequate ventilation, reductions in heating and cooling capacity, or potentially frozen coils. To minimize pressure loss, deep pleated filters or filter banks having a larger nominal inlet area might be feasible alternatives, if space allows. Also, high-pressure losses can sometimes be avoided by using prefilters or more frequent filter changeouts. Pressure loss associated with adsorbent filters can be even greater.

The integrity of the HVAC system’s filter rack or frame system has a major impact upon the installed filtration efficiency. Reducing the leakage of unfiltered air around filters, caused by a poor seal between the filter and the frame, may be as important as increasing filter efficiency. If filter bypass proves to be significant, corrective actions will be needed. Some highefficiency filter systems have better seals and frames constructed to reduce bypass. During an upgrade to higher efficiency filters, the HVAC and filtration systems should be evaluated by a qualified HVAC professional to verify proper performance.

While higher filtration efficiency is encouraged and should provide indoor air quality benefits beyond an increased protection from CBR terrorist events, the overall cost of filtration should be evaluated. Filtration costs include the periodic cost of the filter media, the labor cost to remove and replace filters, and the fan energy cost required to overcome the pressure loss of the filters. While higher efficiency filters tend to have a higher life cycle cost than lower efficiency filters, this is not always the case. With some higher efficiency filter systems, higher acquisition and energy costs can be offset by longer filter life and a reduced labor cost for filter replacements. Also, improved filtration generally keeps heating and cooling coils cleaner and, thus, may reduce energy costs through improvements in heat transfer efficiency. However, when high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters and/or activated carbon adsorbers are used, the overall costs will generally increase substantially.

DUCTED AND NON-DUCTED RETURN AIR SYSTEMS. Ducted returns offer limited access points to introduce a CBR agent. The return vents can be placed in conspicuous locations, reducing the risk of an agent being secretly introduced into the return system. Non-ducted return air systems commonly use hallways or spaces above dropped ceilings as a return-air path or plenum. CBR agents introduced at any location above the dropped ceiling in a ceiling plenum return system will most likely migrate back to the HVAC unit and, without highly efficient filtration for the particular agent, redistribute to occupied areas. Buildings should be designed to minimize mixing between air-handling zones, which can be partially accomplished by limiting shared returns. Where ducted returns are not feasible or warranted, hold-down clips may be used for accessible areas of dropped ceilings that serve as the return plenum. This issue is closely related to the isolation of lobbies and mailrooms, as shared returns are a common way for contaminants from these areas to disperse into the rest of the building. These modifications may be more feasible for new building construction or those undergoing major renovation.

LOW-LEAKAGE, FAST-ACTING DAMPERS. Rapid response, such as shutting down an HVAC system, may also involve closing various dampers, especially those controlling the flow of outdoor air (in the event of an exterior CBR release). When the HVAC system is turned off, the building pressure compared to outdoors may still be negative, drawing outdoor air into the building via many leakage pathways, including the HVAC system. Consideration should be given to installing low leakage dampers to minimize this flow pathway. Damper leakage ratings are available as part of the manufacturer’s specifications and range from ultra-low to normal categories. Assuming that you have some warning prior to a direct CBR release, the speed with which these dampers respond to a "close" instruction can also be important. From a protective standpoint, dampers that respond quickly are preferred over dampers that might take 30 seconds or more to respond.

BUILDING AIR TIGHTNESS. Significant quantities of air can enter a building by means of infiltration through unintentional leakage paths in the building envelope. Such leakage is of more concern for an exterior CBR release at some distance from a building, such as a large-scale attack, than for a directed terrorist act. The reduction of air leakage is a matter of tight building construction in combination with building pressurization. While building pressurization may be a valuable CBR-protection strategy in any building, it is much more likely to be effective in a tight building. However, to be effective, filtration of building supply air must be appropriate for the CBR agent introduced. Although increasing the air tightness of an existing building can be more challenging than during new construction, it should still be seriously considered.

Maintenance of ventilation systems and training of staff are critical for controlling exposure to airborne contaminants, such as CBR agents.

 

EMERGENCY PLANS, POLICIES, AND PROCEDURES. All buildings should have current emergency plans to address fire, weather, and other types of emergencies. In light of past U.S. experiences with anthrax and similar threats, these plans should be updated to consider CBR attack scenarios and the associated procedures for communicating instructions to building occupants, identifying suitable shelter-in-place areas (if they exist), identifying appropriate use and selection of personal protective equipment (i.e., clothing, gloves, respirators) and directing emergency evacuations. Individuals developing emergency plans and procedures should recognize that there are fundamental differences between chemical, biological, and radiological agents. In general, chemical agents will show a rapid onset of symptoms, while the response to biological and radiological agents will be delayed.* Issues such as designated areas and procedures for chemical storage, HVAC control or shutdown, and communication with building occupants and emergency responders, should all be addressed. The plans should be as comprehensive as possible, but, as described earlier, protected by limited and controlled access. When appropriately designed, these plans, policies, and procedures can have a major impact upon occupant survivability in the event of a CBR release. Staff training, particularly for those with specific responsibilities during an event, is essential and should cover both internal and external events. Holding regularly scheduled practice drills, similar to the common fire drill, allows for plan testing, as well as occupant and key staff rehearsal of the plan, and increases the likelihood for success in an actual event. For protection systems in which HVAC control is done via the energy management and control system, emergency procedures should be exercised periodically to ascertain that the various control options work (and continue to work) as planned.

*Note: Additional information on CBR agents may be found via the references at the end of this document.

HVAC MAINTENANCE STAFF TRAINING. Periodic training of HVAC maintenance staff in system operation and maintenance should be conducted. This training should include the procedures to be followed in the event of a suspected CBR agent release. Training should also cover health and safety aspects for maintenance personnel, as well as the potential health consequences to occupants of poorly performing systems. Development of current, accurate HVAC diagrams and HVAC system labeling protocols should be addressed. These documents can be of great value in the event of a CBR release.

PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE AND PROCEDURES. Procedures and preventive maintenance schedules should be implemented for cleaning and maintaining ventilation system components. Replacement filters, parts, and so forth should be obtained from known manufacturers and examined prior to installation. It is important that ventilation systems be maintained and cleaned according to the manufacturer's specifications. To do this requires information on HVAC system performance, flow rates, damper modulation and closure, sensor calibration, filter pressure loss, filter leakage, and filter change-out recommendations. These steps are critical to ensure that protection and mitigation systems, such as particulate filtration, operate as intended.