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A Consideration of the Devolution of Federal Agricultural Policy Diverse needs and preferences across the United States provide justification for the devolution, or decentralization, of many Federal Government programs to the State or local level. The move toward devolution, however, has not been evidenced in U.S. agricultural policy, despite significant differences across States in such areas as commodity production, production costs, income distribution, and opportunities for off-farm work. The existing structure of USDA funding and program delivery already reflects an appreciation of the gains from devolution, with some programs accommodating differences in State and regional preferences. This report considers the implications of devolving $22 billion in 2003 budget outlays, mostly for domestic commodity and natural resource programs and rural development and housing programs. ERSAER836 23 pp 11/3/2004 10:30:00 AM 23.00 Adoption of Agricultural Production Practices: Lessons Learned from the U.S. Department of Agriculture Area Studies Project The U.S. Department of Agriculture Area Studies Project was designed to characterize the extent of adoption of nutrient, pest, soil, and water management practices and to assess the factors that affect adoption for a wide range of management strategies across different natural resource regions. The project entailed the administration of a detailed field-level survey to farmers in 12 watersheds in the Nation to gather data on agricultural practices, input use, and natural resource characteristics associated with farming activities. The data were analyzed by the Economic Research Service using a consistent methodological approach with the full set of data to study the constraints associated with the adoption of micronutrients, N-testing, split nitrogen applications, green manure, biological pest controls, pest-resistant varieties, crop rotations, pheromones, scouting, conservation tillage, contour farming, strip cropping, grassed waterways, and irrigation. In addition to the combined-areas analyses, selected areas were chosen for analysis to illustrate the difference in results between aggregate and area-specific models. The unique sample design for the survey was used to explore the importance of field-level natural resource data for evaluating adoption at both the aggregate and watershed levels. Further analyses of the data illustrated how the adoption of specific management practices affects chemical use and crop yields. ERSAER792 116 pp 2/14/2001 5:00:00 PM 33.00 Agri-Environmental Policy at the Crossroads: Guideposts on a Changing Landscape Agri-environmental policy is at a crossroads. Over the past 20 years, a wide range of policies addressing the environmental implications of agricultural production have been implemented at the Federal level. Those policies have played an important role in reducing soil erosion, protecting and restoring wetlands, and creating wildlife habitat. However, emerging agri-environmental issues, evolution of farm income support policies, and limits imposed by trade agreements may point toward a rethinking of agri-environmental policy. This report identifies the types of policy tools available and the design features that have improved the effectiveness of current programs. It provides an indepth analysis of one policy tool that may be an important component of a future policy package—agri-environmental payments. The analysis focuses on issues and tradeoffs that policymakers would face in designing a program of agri-environmental payments. ersaer794 72 pp 1/25/2001 3:00:00 PM 27.00 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 1994 This report identifies trends in land, water, and commercial input use, reports on the condition of natural resources used in the agricultural sector, and describes and assesses public policies that affect conservation and environmental quality in agriculture. Combining data and information, this report examines the complex connections among farming practices, conservation, and the environment, which are increasingly important components in U.S. agriculture and farm policy. The report examines the economic factors that affect resource use and, when data permit, estimates the costs and benefits (to farmers, consumers, and the government) of meeting conservation and environmental goals. The report takes stock of how natural resources (land and water) and commercial inputs (energy, nutrients, pesticides, and machinery) are used in the agricultural sector; shows how they contribute to environmental quality; and links use and quality to technological change, production practices, and farm programs. Back to AREI home. ERSAH705 216 pp 12/1/1994 47.00 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 1996-97 This report identifies trends in land, water, and commercial input use, reports on the condition of natural resources used in the agricultural sector, and describes and assesses public policies that affect conservation and environmental quality in agriculture. Combining data and information, this report examines the complex connections among farming practices, conservation, and the environment, which are increasingly important components in U.S. agriculture and farm policy. The report also examines the economic factors that affect resource use and, when data permit, estimates the costs and benefits (to farmers, consumers, and the government) of meeting conservation and environmental goals. The report takes stock of how natural resources (land and water) and commercial inputs (energy, nutrients, pesticides, and machinery) are used in the agricultural sector; shows how they contribute to environmental quality; and links use and quality to technological change, production practices, and farm programs. Back to AREI home. ERSAH712 356 pp 7/1/1997 62.00 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2003 This report identifies trends in land, water, and biological resources and commercial input use, reports on the condition of natural resources used in the agricultural sector, and describes and assesses public policies that affect conservation and environmental quality in agriculture. Combining data and information, this report examines the complex connections among farming practices, conservation, and the environment, which are increasingly important components in U.S. agriculture and farm policy. The report also examines the economic factors that affect resource use and estimates costs and benefits to farmers, consumers, and the government of meeting conservation and environmental goals. The report takes stock of how natural resources (land, water and biological resources) and commercial inputs (nutrients, pesticides, seed and machinery) are used in the agricultural sector; shows how they contribute to environmental quality; and links use and quality to technological change, production practices, and farm programs. The report is available only in electronic format. Back to AREI home. ERSAH722 2/14/2003 9:00:00 AM Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Appendix A variety of data sources used in Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators are described here, including the Agricultural Land Values Survey (ALVS), Agricultural Resource Management Study (ARMS), Area Studies, Census of Agriculture, Chemical Use Surveys, Conservation Compliance Status Review, Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) contract data, Cropping Practices Surveys (CPS), Crop Residue Management (CRM) Survey, Current Research Information System (CRIS), Farm Costs and Returns Survey (FCRS), Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey (FRIS), Farm Real Estate Tax Survey, Foreign Ownership of U.S. Agricultural Land, NASS Agricultural Survey (NAS), and National Resources Inventory (NRI). AH722 2/14/2003 9:00:00 AM Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Compliance Provisions for Soil and Wetland Conservation Compliance provisions, first introduced in the 1985 Food Security Act, require certain resource conservation activities in return for benefits from selected Federal agricultural programs. Producers can lose Federal farm program benefits if they produce crops on highly erodible land without applying an approved conservation system or if they convert wetlands for agricultural production. In 1997, approved conservation systems were in effect for more than 95 percent of highly erodible land subject to conservation compliance, reducing erosion by two-thirds on such lands. More than 50 percent of all conservation systems involve conservation cropping sequences, conservation tillage, crop residue use, or a combination of these practices. Given reasonable assumptions about future commodity prices and production costs, compliance mechanisms may also be keeping 6-10 million acres of wetlands and highly erodible land out of crop production. AH722 2/14/2003 9:00:00 AM Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Crop Genetic Resources In addition to wildlife, biological resources include the genetic resources used to produce agricultural crops. The relationship between agricultural production and biological resources is two directional. While agricultural production may affect wild biological resources, it also depends on crop and livestock genetic resources, some of which are found in the wild. Crop genetic resources are used by breeders to develop new and improved varieties for farmers. This process of genetic enhancement has produced substantial economic benefits. A strong genetic resource base is important for several reasons, among them the fact that a lack of genetic diversity in farmers' fields, if severe, may increase the risk of pest or disease epidemics. Genetic resources are constantly required as inputs into the continuing process of enhancement through selective breeding (including genetic engineering). Therefore, conservation of crop genetic resources is needed, given their critical role in agricultural production. AH722 2/14/2003 9:00:00 AM Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Land Retirement The Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) remains the largest U.S. agricultural land conservation program. Re-authorized by the 1996 Farm Act at a time when commodity prices were high, consideration was given to early release of some contracts, and more careful targeting of enrolled acreage to maximize environmental benefits. The emphasis on targeting for environmental benefits continues, as the criteria for enrollment have evolved and other forms of targeting, such as the continuous CRP signup and Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program, have emerged. As the CRP approaches its statutory 36.4-million-acre limit, some have proposed increasing the acreage cap, which could slightly shift the geographic distribution of enrollment. The Wetlands Reserve Program (WRP), a much smaller related land-retirement program, is also approaching its statutory cap. AH722 2/14/2003 9:00:00 AM Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Land Use The three predominant uses of land in the contiguous 48 States are grassland pasture and range, forest-use land, and cropland, in that order. Total cropland (used for crops, used for pasture, and idled) has trended down slightly since the late 1960s. Greater variation has occurred in cropland used for crops. Changes in 1996 farm policy reduced the impact of farm programs on cropland used for crops. Weather, such as drought or heavy rains, can strongly influence the acreage of cropland used for crops from year to year. Programs aimed at farmland preservation have received increasing attention in recent years. AH722 2/14/2003 9:00:00 AM 25.50 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Nutrient Use and Management Nutrients, which need to be applied to most fields to maintain high crop yields, have been associated with air and water quality impairment. While exceptions occur in some areas of the country, most nutrients applied in the U.S. are from commercial fertilizers. Commercial fertilizer use exceeded 20 million nutrient tons per year since 1990 and rose to over 22 million tons during the 1996-98 fertilizer years because of increased area planted. Fertilizer prices paid by farmers were stable from 1989 to 1993, rose dramatically in 1994 and 1995, and, for most nitrogen products, declined to below 1993 levels between 1996 and 1999. Many improved practices are available to reduce nutrient losses to the environment, with varying degrees of adoption by farmers. To improve nutrient management, farmers need to understand the link between agricultural production and the environment, and public policies need to encourage farmers to adopt resource-conserving practices. AH722 2/14/2003 9:00:00 AM Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Overview of Conservation Programs and Expenditures A range of policy tools or instruments exist to encourage or compel adoption of conservation and environmental practices. Federal government programs for natural resources and the environment based on these policy tools have evolved and expanded over the years. USDA has historically focused on some of these instruments in conservation programs intended to benefit natural resources and the environment affected by agriculture, and ignored others. Older programs discontinued in the Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996 phased down as new programs were implemented, while other programs extended by the Act continued. In 1998, USDA's conservation program expenditures represented a quarter of total Federal conservation and environmental spending. Over half of USDA's conservation expenditures were for rental or easement payments on lands in conserving uses, while expenditures for technical assistance and cost-sharing were a third of the total. AH722 2/14/2003 9:00:00 AM Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Pest Management Practices Insects, disease, and weeds cause significant yield and quality losses to U.S. crops. Pesticides, one option to combat pest damage, have been one of the fastest growing agricultural production inputs in the post-World War II era, and have contributed to the high productivity of U.S. agriculture. Herbicides and insecticides account for most pesticide use, but the recent increase in pounds of pesticide used is mostly for fungicides and other pesticide products applied to high-value crops. Pesticide expenses have increased from 4 to 5 percent of total production expenses during the 1990's. Many scientists recommend greater use of biological and cultural pest management methods. Major innovations have been the development of genetically engineered herbicide-tolerant varieties, which allow more effective use of herbicides, and plant pesticides, which reduce the need for chemical applications. Government programs to encourage the development and use of biological and cultural methods include areawide pest management, integrated pest management (IPM), national organic standards, and regulatory streamlining for biological pest control agents. AH722 9/6/2000 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Soil Managment and Conservation Crop production depends largely on soil and is affected greatly by the quality of that soil. Soil quality also plays a role in the environmental effects of crop production. Traditional measures of soil quality include land capability and suitability, prime land, productivity, erodibility, and vulnerability to leach pesticides and nitrates. More comprehensive measures are needed that consider physical, chemical, and biological properties, and also economic factors. Soil management involves actions by land managers that affect soil quality and productivity and alter soil's effects on environmental quality. Examples of these actions include land use or cropping pattern, type and extent of tillage, amount of cover or residue left on the soil, and use of conservation buffers and structures. AH722 2/14/2003 9:00:00 AM Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Sustainable Resource Use and Global Food Security The notion of food security has expanded in recent years from a relatively static focus on food availability to one that recognizes longer-term concerns about access and resources. At the same time, economists have been working to incorporate changes in the quality and quantity of natural and other resources into measures of national income and wealth. A review of trends in global and regional food production, population growth, and resource use helps illustrate the relationship between sustainable resource use and food security, and indicates the continuing importance of the role that U.S. agriculture will play in meeting these goals in the 21st century. AH722 2/14/2003 9:00:00 AM Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Water Quality Impacts of Agriculture Agricultural production releases residuals that may degrade the quality of the Nation's water resources and impose costs on water users. The extent and magnitude of this degradation is difficult to assess because of its nonpoint nature. However, agriculture is the leading source of remaining impairments in the Nation.s rivers and lakes and a major source of impairments to estuaries. AH722 8/30/2000 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Water Quality Programs Federal and State governments both have developed several approaches for protecting water quality. These approaches use a variety of incentive mechanisms for reducing pollution discharges. Pollution from factories and other point sources is controlled through regulations and penalties. In contrast, programs for reducing pollution from agriculture and other nonpoint sources rely most heavily on voluntary approaches providing education, technical, and cost-sharing assistance. AH722 2/14/2003 9:00:00 AM Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Wetlands Programs Wetlands are important to the Nation's environment. Wetlands can store floodwater, trap nutrients and sediment, help recharge ground water, provide habitat for fish and wildlife, and buffer shorelines from wave damage. Wetlands also provide outdoor recreation, produce timber, provide grazing for livestock, and support educational and scientific activities. Despite these public values, conserving land as wetland forecloses more intensive economic uses for landowners. The current 124 million acres of wetlands in the continental United States is 55 percent of the original extent, but the rate of wetland loss has greatly diminished. A variety of policy instruments have been used in wetland programs to make progress toward the national goal of eventual net gains in wetlands. AH722 2/14/2003 9:00:00 AM Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators: Wildlife Resources Conservation U.S. agriculture is well positioned to play a major role in protecting and enhancing the nation's wildlife. Wildlife in the U.S is dependent on the considerable land and water resources under the control of agriculture. At the same time, agriculture is one of the most competitive sectors in the U.S., and economic tradeoffs can make it difficult for farmers, on their own, to support wildlife conservation efforts requiring them to adopt more wildlife-friendly production techniques or directly allocate additional land and water resources to wildlife. Besides the opportunity costs associated with shifting resource use or changing production techniques, the public goods and common property nature of wildlife can also affect a farmers decision to protect wildlife found on their land. However, the experiences of USDA conservation programs demonstrate that farmers are willing to voluntarily shift additional land and water resources into habitat, provided they are compensated. AH722 2/14/2003 9:00:00 AM Amber Waves, April 2004 Amber Waves presents the broad scope of ERS' research and analysis. The magazine covers the economics of agriculture, food and nutrition, the food industry, trade, rural America, and farm-related environmental topics. Available on the Internet and in print, Amber Waves is issued in print five times a year (February, April, June, September, and November). The Internet edition, or "e-zine," includes links to web-only resources. 4/1/2004 1:00:00 PM 49.95/year Amber Waves, February 2003 Amber Waves is a new magazine that presents a window into the broad scope of ERS' research and analysis. The magazine covers the economics of agriculture, food and nutrition, the food industry, trade, rural America, and farm-related environmental topics. Available on the Internet and in print, it will appear five times a year (in February, April, June, September, and November). The Internet edition or ""e-zine"" will change as new material is added between scheduled issues. 2/20/2003 12:31:00 PM 49.95/year Amber Waves, June 2004 Amber Waves presents the broad scope of ERS' research and analysis. The magazine covers the economics of agriculture, food and nutrition, the food industry, trade, rural America, and farm-related environmental topics. Available on the Internet and in print, Amber Waves is issued in print five times a year (February, April, June, September, and November). The Internet edition, or "e-zine," includes links to web-only resources. 6/1/2004 1:00:00 PM 49.95/year Amber Waves, November 2003 Amber Waves presents the broad scope of ERS' research and analysis. The magazine covers the economics of agriculture, food and nutrition, the food industry, trade, rural America, and farm-related environmental topics. Available on the Internet and in print, Amber Waves is issued in print five times a year (February, April, June, September, and November). The Internet edition, or "e-zine," includes links to web-only resources. 11/7/2003 2:05:00 PM 49.95/year Amber Waves, September 2004 Amber Waves presents the broad scope of ERS' research and analysis. The magazine covers the economics of agriculture, food and nutrition, the food industry, trade, rural America, and farm-related environmental topics. Available on the Internet and in print, Amber Waves is issued in print five times a year (February, April, June, September, and November). The Internet edition, or "e-zine," includes links to web-only resources. 9/1/2004 9:00:00 AM 49.95/year An Efficient Cost-Sharing Program to Reduce Nonpoint-Source Contamination: Theory and an Application to Groundwater Contamination In the 1996 Farm Act the U.S. Congress established the agricultural cost-share program known as the Environmental Quality Incentive Program (EQIP). In doing so, Congress recognized the public’s increased concern about agricultural nonpoint-source contamination, and the importance of using cost-sharing programs to reduce this contamination source by encouraging producers to adopt resource-conserving and/or environmentally-beneficial agricultural practices. This paper examines rigorously the economics of cost-sharing improved irrigation technologies to reduce agricultural nonpoint-source contamination. EEJS0102 4/1/2000 Beyond Environmental Compliance: Stewardship as Good Business Both crop and animal production generate pollutants that enter the air as well as surface and ground waters. Such pollution is difficult to control, and programs designed to address agricultural pollution have remained largely voluntary. However, growing evidence suggests that good economic performance is compatible with good environmental performance. Recent ERS analysis suggests that agricultural producers can benefit economically by voluntarily adopting environmentally beneficial practices. 4/1/2004 12:00:00 PM Confined Animal Production and Manure Nutrients Census of agriculture data were used to estimate manure nutrient production and the capacity of cropland and pastureland to assimilate nutrients. Most farms (78 percent for nitrogen and 69 percent for phosphorus) have adequate land on which it is physically feasible to apply the manure produced onfarm at agronomic rates. (The costs of applying manure at these rates have not been assessed). Even so, manure that is produced on operations that cannot fully apply it to their own land at agronomic rates accounts for 60 percent of the Nation’s manure nitrogen and 70 percent of the manure phosphorus. In these cases, most counties with farms that produce ""excess"" nutrients have adequate crop acres not associated with animal operations, but within the county, on which it is feasible to spread the manure at agronomic rates. However, barriers to moving manure to other farms need to be studied. About 20 percent of the Nation’s onfarm excess manure nitrogen is produced in counties that have insufficient cropland for its application at agronomic rates (23 percent for phosphorus). For areas without adequate land, alternatives to local land application--such as energy production--will need to be developed. ERSAIB771 40 pp 7/20/2001 3:00:00 PM 25.50 Crop Residue Management and Tillage System Trends A summary of national and regional trends of crop residue management, including tillage systems used on winter wheat, corn, soybeans, cotton, and spring and durum wheat. Finds that conservation tillage was used on more than 99 million acres in 1994, about 35 percent of total U.S. planted crop area. Besides conserving soil, crop residue management practices also cut production costs on many farms. ERSSB930 36 pp 8/1/1996 25.50 Economic and Conservation Tradeoffs of Regulatory Vs. Incentive-Based Water Policy in the Northwest Water quality, endangered salmon species, and Native American fishing rights have significantly heightened the competition for Columbia and Snake River Basin water resources. A solution to this regional resource conflict is expected to involve a reallocation of water resources from agriculture. This analysis examines both onfarm water conservation and agricultural economic tradeoffs across five broad regulatory and conservation-incentive water policy perspectives for the Pacific Northwest. EEJS0103 6/1/2000 Economic Assessment of the 1999 Drought: Agricultural Impacts Are Severe Locally, but Limited Nationally While the 1999 drought has had severe financial impacts on agricultural producers in the drought regions, its impact on U.S. agricultural production has been limited. The drought will reduce commodity receipts relative to 1998 by an estimated $1.29 billion. Estimated farm net income losses, including expected yield losses, increases in expenses, and insurance indemnities, will total $1.35 billion, about 3 percent of expected 1999 U.S. net farm income. Drought impacts in areas of the Northeast designated as extreme and severe drought are expected to reduce farmers' net income by nearly $840 million. The regions affected, the crops grown in those regions, the increased use of irrigation, and crop insurance coverage limited the drought's impacts on agriculture nationally. Drought also affects the rural population by reducing water supplies available for human and livestock consumption. ERSAIB755 20 pp 11/1/1999 23.00 Economic Valuation of Environmental Benefits and the Targeting of Conservation Programs: The Case of the CRP The range of environmental problems confronting agriculture has expanded in recent years. As the largest program designed to mitigate the negative environmental effects of agriculture, the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) has broadened its initial focus on reductions in soil erosion to consider other landscape factors that may also be beneficial. For example, preserving habitats can help protect wildlife, thus leading to more nature-viewing opportunities. This report demonstrates how nonmarket valuation models can be used in targeting conservation programs such as the CRP. ERSAER778 64 pp 5/1/1999 12:00:00 PM 27.00 Economics of Sequestering Carbon in the U.S. Agricultural Sector Atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases can be reduced by withdrawing carbon from the atmosphere and sequestering it in soils and biomass. This report analyzes the performance of alternative incentive designs and payment levels if farmers were paid to adopt land uses and management practices that raise soil carbon levels. At payment levels below $10 per metric ton for permanently sequestered carbon, analysis suggests landowners would find it more cost effective to adopt changes in rotations and tillage practices. At higher payment levels, afforestation dominates sequestration activities, mostly through conversion of pastureland. Across payment levels, the economic potential to sequester carbon is much lower than the technical potential reported in soil science studies. The most cost-effective payment design adjusts payment levels to account both for the length of time farmers are willing to commit to sequestration activities and for net sequestration. A 50-percent cost-share for cropland conversion to forestry or grasslands would increase sequestration at low carbon payment levels but not at high payment levels. ERSTB1909 69 pp 4/1/2004 27.00 Economics of Water Quality Protection from Nonpoint Sources: Theory and Practice Water quality is a major environmental issue. Pollution from nonpoint sources is the single largest remaining source of water quality impairments in the United States. Agriculture is a major source of several nonpoint-source pollutants, including nutrients, sediment, pesticides, and salts. Agricultural nonpoint pollution reduction policies can be designed to induce producers to change their production practices in ways that improve the environmental and related economic consequences of production. The information necessary to design economically efficient pollution control policies is almost always lacking. Instead, policies can be designed to achieve specific environmental or other similarly related goals at least cost, given transaction costs and any other political, legal, or informational constraints that may exist. This report outlines the economic characteristics of five instruments that can be used to reduce agricultural nonpoint source pollution (economic incentives, standards, education, liability, and research) and discusses empirical research related to the use of these instruments. ERSAER782 120 pp 12/1/1999 33.00 Environmental Compliance in U.S. Agricultural Policy: Past Performance and Future Potential Since 1985, U.S. agricultural producers have been required to practice soil conservation on highly erodible cropland and conserve wetlands as a condition of farm program eligibility. This report discusses the general characteristics of compliance incentives, evaluates their effectiveness in reducing erosion in the program’s current form, and explores the potential for expanding the compliance approach to address nutrient runoff from crop production. While soil erosion has, in fact, been reduced on land subject to Conservation Compliance, erosion is also down on land not subject to Conservation Compliance, indicating the influence of other factors. Analysis to isolate the influence of Conservation Compliance incentives from other factors suggests that about 25 percent of the decline in soil erosion between 1982 and 1997 can be attributed to Conservation Compliance. This report also finds that compliance incentives have likely deterred conversion of noncropped highly erodible land and wetland to cropland, and that a compliance approach could be used effectively to address nutrient runoff from crop production. ERSAER832 52 pp 6/1/2004 12:00:00 PM 27.00 Estimating Water Quality Benefits: Theoretical and Methodological Issues Reviews practical approaches and theoretical foundations for estimating the economic value of changes in water quality to recreation, navigation, reservoirs, municipal water treatment and use, and roadside drainage ditches. ERSTB1808 36 pp 9/1/1992 25.50 Farmland Protection: The Role of Public Preferences for Rural Amenities Investigates the relative importance of preserving different amenities conserved by farmland protection programs. Examines farmland protection program enabling legislation in the 48 contiguous States, and implementation of these programs in five Northeastern States. ERSAER815 74 pp 11/4/2002 8:00:00 AM 27.00 Green Technologies for a More Sustainable Agriculture For U.S. agriculture to continue along a sustainable path of economic development, further production increases must be generated by technologies that are both profitable and more environmentally benign. In this context, we assess the role of these green or sustainable technologies in steering agriculture along a more sustainable path. However, the lack of markets for the environmental attributes associated with green technologies can limit their development. In addition, simply making a technology available does not mean it will be adopted. Experience with green technologies such as conservation tillage, integrated pest management, enhanced nutrient management, and precision agriculture demonstrates that even when technologies are profitable, barriers to adopting new practices can limit their effectiveness. ERSAIB752 48 pp 7/1/1999 25.50 Have Conservation Compliance Incentives Reduced Soil Erosion? With the 1985 Food Security Act, farmers are required to engage in conservation activities in order to receive government payments. This article focuses on the soil erosion impacts of "conservation compliance", which requires producers to apply and maintain conservation systems on highly erodible (HEL) cropland that was already in crop production in 1985 or risk losing government farm price and income support. The article finds that following implementation of conservation compliance and other conservation policy changes, soil erosion on U.S. cropland fell significantly. 6/1/2004 1:00:00 PM Land Tenure and the Adoption of Conservation Practices Does land tenure affect a farmer’s adoption of conservation practices? This is a classic question in economics, and it remains important today. Agricultural Census data show that agricultural land leasing declined from 45 percent of U.S. farmland in 1935 to 35 percent in 1950, but subsequently increased to 41 percent by 1997. The authors use a logit adoption model with data on 941 U.S. corn producers from the 1996 Agricultural Resource Management Study to analyze the influence of land tenure on the adoption of conservation practices. The authors extend previous analyses by distinguishing renters according to lease type and by distinguishing conservation practices according to the timing of costs and benefits. EEJS0104 11/1/2000 Least-cost Management of Nonpoint Source Pollution: Source Reduction Versus Interception Strategies for Controlling Nitrogen Loss in the Mississippi Basin An ERS Elsewhere file of a journal article published in Ecological Economics. eejs0207 2/2/2002 Linking Land Quality, Agricultural Productivity, and Food Security As rising populations and incomes increase pressure on land and other resources around the world, agricultural productivity plays an increasingly important role in improving food supplies and food security. This report explores the extent to which land quality and land degradation affect agricultural productivity, how farmers respond to land degradation, and whether land degradation poses a threat to productivity growth and food security in developing regions and around the world. ERSAER823 63 pp 6/20/2003 1:00:00 PM 27.00 Managing Manure: New Clean Water Act Regulations Create Imperative for Livestock Producers Nutrients from livestock and poultry manure are key sources of water pollution. Since regulations for livestock and poultry operations under the 1972 Clean Water Act were first developed, operations in general have become more concentrated and specialized. Ever-growing numbers of livestock and poultry per farm and per acre have increased the risk of water pollution. Hog production provides a good example of how economic factors can change animal industry structure and practices. New water quality regulations were put in place to deal with manure management on December 16, 2002. 2/20/2003 12:30:00 PM Manure Management for Water Quality: Costs to Animal Feeding Operations of Applying Manure Nutrients to Land Nutrients from livestock and poultry manure are key sources of water pollution. Ever-growing numbers of animals per farm and per acre have increased the risk of water pollution. New Clean Water Act regulations compel the largest confined animal producers to meet nutrient application standards when applying manure to the land. The additional costs for managing manure have implications for feedgrain producers and consumers as well. This report's farm-level analysis examines onfarm technical choice and producer costs across major U.S. production areas. A regional analysis focuses on off-farm competition for land to spread surplus manure, using the Chesapeake Bay region as a case study. Finally, a sectorwide analysis addresses potential long-term structural adjustments at the national level and ultimate costs to consumers and producers. ERSAER824 99 pp 6/20/2003 1:01:00 PM 29.50 Measuring the Success of Conservation Programs Due to the influence and interactions of many factors, evaluation of conservation programs is a data-intensive and technically challenging process. This article provides an overview of the steps necessary for evaluating the success of conservation program. These steps must address two questions: 1) How do different farm operators in different circumstances decide what production and conservation practices to implement, in the presence and absence of the conservation program being evaluated, at different levels of incentives provided by that program?; and 2) How do the farm practices attributable to conservation program incentives affect environmental quality? 9/1/2004 9:00:00 AM Natural Amenities Drive Rural Population Change Climate, topography, and water area are highly related to rural county population change over the past 25 years. A natural amenities index, derived and discussed here, captures much of this relationship. Average 1970-96 population change in nonmetropolitan counties was 1 percent among counties low on the natural amenities index and 120 percent among counties high on the index. Most retirement counties and recreation counties score in the top quarter of the amenities index. Employment change is also highly related to natural amenities, although more so over the past 25 years than in the current decade. The importance of particular amenities varies by region. In the Midwest, for example, people are drawn to lakes for recreation and retirement, while people are attracted to the West for its varied topography. ERSAER781 32 pp 10/1/1999 25.50 Partial Interests in Land: Policy Tools for Resource Use and Conservation Property rights arise out of law, custom, and the operation of private markets, with important implications for how land and other natural resources are used and conserved. Over the past several years, debate about the nature and scope of property rights has combined with budget concerns and reauthorization of the Farm Bill, the Clean Water Act, and the Endangered Species Act to focus public attention on Federal natural resource policy. This report examines the nature of land ownership and the evolving Federal role in land use and conservation, with particular attention to the voluntary acquisition and conveyance of conservation easements and other partial interests in land. ERSAER744 68 pp 11/29/1996 27.00 Policy Considerations for Increasing Compatibilities Between Agriculture and Wildlife Agriculture has received much attention as a source of threat to wild species and habitats. For example, among federally listed threatened or endangered species in the contiguous 48 States, 57 percent are listed, at least in part, due to agricultural development, pesticide use, fertilizer use, or grazing. Recent actions to protect wildlife have resulted in several marked policy shifts for agricultural producers. For example, wolf reintroduction programs explicitly recognize increased threats to livestock and contrast sharply with past policies aimed at eradication. EEJS0003 4/1/1999 Policy Objectives and Economic Incentives for Controlling Agricultural Sources of Nonpoint Pollution Agriculture nonpoint source pollution is an important source of water quality impairment in the United States. Nonpoint source pollution has some important physical characteristics that have implications for setting appropriate pollution control objectives and designing incentive-based pollution control policies. Design-based incentives provide a better opportunity for controlling nonpoint pollution than do performance-based incentives. For design-based incentives to be cost-effective, the incentives must induce producers to use variable inputs at appropriate levels, to adopt appropriate management practices, and to make appropriate land use decisions at the extensive margin of production. A review of existing programs suggests that greater program coordination and improved targeting of incentives are needed for further water quality improvements. EEJS0007 10/1/1999 Production Practices for Major Crops in U.S. Agriculture, 1990-97 This report presents information on nutrient and pest management practices, crop residue management, and other general crop management practices in use on U.S. farms. The public has expressed concerns about the possible undesirable effects of contemporary agricultural practices on human health and natural resources. Partly as a response to these concerns, the U.S. Department of Agriculture began collecting information from farmers on their agricultural production practices in 1964. In 1990, through the President’s Water Quality Initiative, the USDA expanded its data collection efforts. The information presented in this report is largely for the 1990’s. Although the information cannot contribute to the science underlying the debate about the effects of agriculture on human health and environmental risk, it can provide information on the use of relevant inputs and production practices that are likely to abate, or to exacerbate, undesirable effects. ERSSB969 114 pp 9/20/2000 33.00 Provisions of the Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996 This report provides an item-by-item description and explanation of the new Act, which will guide agricultural programs from 1996-2000. Signed into law in April, the act makes significant changes in long-standing U.S. agricultural policies. Major changes in U.S. commodity programs are included in the Act's Title I, known as the Agricultural Market Transition Act. ERSAIB729 164 pp 9/1/1996 41.00 Salmon Recovery in the Columbia River Basin: Analysis of Measures Affecting Agriculture Native salmon runs of the Columbia River basin have declined precipitously in recent decades, prompting the listing of several stocks under the Federal Endangered Species Act. This analysis examines the effects of proposed salmon recovery measures on the Northwest agricultural sector. Primary measures affecting agriculture include modified timing of dam releases, reservoir drawdown, and flow augmentation. Potential adjustments in input cost and supply include increased grain transport costs due to restricted barging along the lower Snake River; higher irrigation pumping costs with increased hydroelectric power rates; and reduced irrigation water diversions in the upper Snake River basin. Input cost and quantity changes are quantified and combined into seven recovery scenarios for analysis. EEJS0005 4/1/1999 The 1996 Farm Act Increases Market Orientation The Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996, a milestone in U.S. agricultural policy, provides new farm sector law for 1996-2002, fundamentally redesigning income support programs and discontinuing supply management programs for producers of many commodities. This bulletin provides a general overview of major changes related to production agriculture resulting from the commodity provisions, agricultural trade provisions, and conservation provisions of the Act. ERSAIB726 36 pp 8/1/1996 25.50 The Conservation Reserve Program: Economic Implications for Rural America This report estimates the impact that high levels of enrollment in the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) have had on economic trends in rural counties since the program’s inception in 1985 until today. The results of a growth model and quasi-experimental control group analysis indicate no discernible impact by the CRP on aggregate county population trends. Aggregate employment growth may have slowed in some high-CRP counties, but only temporarily. High levels of CRP enrollment appear to have affected farm-related businesses over the long run, but growth in the number of other nonfarm businesses moderated CRP’s impact on total employment. If CRP contracts had ended in 2001, simulation models suggest that roughly 51 percent of CRP land would have returned to crop production, and that spending on outdoor recreation would decrease by as much as $300 million per year in rural areas. The resulting impacts on employment and income vary widely among regions having similar CRP enrollments, depending upon local economic conditions. ERSAER834 112 pp 10/8/2004 10:00:00 AM 33.00 The Conservation Reserve Program: Enrollment Statistics for Signup Periods 1-12 and Fiscal Years 1986-93 This report is fifth in an ERS series summarizing CRP participation. Finds that more than 36 million acres were enrolled in the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) in signup periods 1-12, held during 1986-92. This acreage includes over 23 million commodity program base acres and nearly 2.5 million tree acres. Annual CRP rental payments average about $50 per acre, and annual soil erosion reductions average 19 tons per acre. ERSSB925 112 pp 11/1/1995 33.00 The Role of Education in Nonpoint Source Pollution Control Policy Education is often used to provide agricultural producers with information on how to operate more efficiently with current technologies, or with information on profitable new technologies that generate less pollution. When education is successful, it provides a win-win solution where both producers and the environment benefit. While such win-win solutions are attractive, this article describes a simple economic framework to show that education cannot be considered a strong tool for water quality protection. EEJS0002 11/1/1999 U.S.-EU Food and Agriculture Comparisons This report provides information and analysis on a wide range of topics relating to agriculture in the United States and European Union (EU), including comparisons of farm structure, production, agricultural productivity, risk management, environmental, commodity policy, trade, and food consumption, as well as implications of EU enlargement for bilateral relations. The purpose is to provide information to a broad audience seeking to understand key similarities and differences between two of the world's largest agricultural producers and traders and to gain perspective on the issues affecting US-EU relations. ERSWRS04-04 97 pp 2/27/2004 12:00:00 PM 29.50 Understanding Rural America The diversity of rural America and the changes it has undergone in the last half century have resulted in a wide variety of economic conditions and needs. This full-color report documents changes in rural employment, population, and well-being for six categories of rural counties: those that depend on farming, manufacturing, and services, and those that have high concentrations of retirees, Federal lands, and poverty. ERSAIB710 36 pp 2/1/1995 25.50 Voluntary Incentives for Reducing Agricultural Nonpoint Source Water Pollution Agricultural chemicals and sediment from cropland may reduce the quality of America's surface and ground water resources. The Clean Water Act stipulates that individual States are responsible for controlling agricultural nonpoint source pollution. Most State plans rely chiefly on education and technical assistance to promote the adoption of less polluting practices. Because profitability drives production decisions, these programs tend to be most successful when they promote inexpensive changes in existing practices. This report presents research findings on the success of incentive programs to control agricultural nonpoint source pollution. ERSAIB716 16 pp 5/1/1995 23.00 Wetlands and Agriculture: Private Interests and Public Benefits Society has recently increased the value it places on the services that wetlands provide, including water quality improvements, flood control, wildlife habitat, and recreation. However, owners of wetlands are often unable to profit from these services because the benefits created are freely enjoyed by many. This report examines differences between public and private incentives regarding wetlands. Federal wetland policy has shifted in recent decades--from encouraging wetland conversion to encouraging wetland protection and restoration--in an effort to balance public and private objectives. The report assesses the need for continued wetlands protection policies as the United States approaches achieving the goal of no net loss of wetlands. ERSAER765 104 pp 9/1/1998 33.00